Википедия

Восточная Армения

Восточная Армения (арм. Արևելյան Հայաստան), Закавказская, КавказскаяАрмения; Перс-Армения (для периода IV—VII вв.); Русская Армения (арм. Ռուսական Հայաստան, для периода начала XIX — начала XX вв.) — термин, которым в историографии обозначаются восточные области исторической Армении.

Древнегреческий историк Ксенофонт в своём труде «Анабасис» упоминает реку Телебоас (совр. Карасу), по которой проходила граница между Восточной и Западной Арменией в V в. до н. э.. Сегодня границу между Западной и Восточной Арменией проводят по долине реки Аракс и Араратской равнине, которая является центром древней культуры и государственности армян.

«Энциклопедия Ислама» указывает площадь Восточной Армении равной около 103 000 км2.

История термина

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Термин «Восточная Армения» (арм. յարևելս Հայաստանեաց) в тексте историка XIII века Киракоса Гандзакеци: «Об ишханах Восточной Армении Закарэ и брате его Иванэ», 1241—1265 годы

Впервые понятие «Восточная Армения» было использовано для наименования восточной части Армянской сатрапии (VI—IV вв. до н. э.) в составе Ахеменидской империи. Согласно древнегреческому историку Ксенофонту, граница Западной и Восточной Армении проходила по реке Телебоас (приток Евфрата).

В период поздней античности и раннего средневековья данное понятие использовалось для восточных провинций Великой Армении, разделённой между Римской империей и Сасанидской Персией в 387 году н. э..

После раздела региона между Османской империей и Сефевидским Ираном, в соответствии с условиями Зухабского договора (1639), завершившего Турецко-персидскую войну (1623—1639), термин начал применяться географами, историками и путешественниками для обозначения той части армянских земель (к востоку от реки Ахурян), которая отошла к Персии. Восточная Армения включала в себя административные единицы Чухур-Саад (территория будущих Эриванского и Нахичеванского ханств) и Карабахское беглербегство (собственно Карабах, включая Нагорный, а также Гянджа и Зангезур).

География

Восточная Армения занимает область Араратской долины, долины реки Аракс, а её восточные границы проходят по горным цепям Севана, Гянджи и Карабаха (включая Сюник, Лори, Тавуш и т. д.). Таким образом, включает в себя всю территорию современных Республики Армения, Нахичеванской АР, часть территории современного Азербайджана и Карабах. В более широком смысле составляет восточную половину Армянского нагорья и прилегающих территорий, составляющих часть исторической Армении. Данный регион полностью или частично включает в себя 7 провинций:

  • Айрарат и Гугарк — частично;
  • Сюник;
  • Арцах;
  • Утик;
  • Васпуракан (восточная часть) и Нор-Ширакан (Парскаайк).

История

На протяжении всей истории, контроль над Арменией, имеющей стратегически важное положение и расположенной на стыке Европы и Азии, играл ключевую роль в политике государств региона. Находясь на пересечении основных торговых путей и вблизи крупных центров производств шёлка и других важных товаров, Армянское нагорье было местом постоянных военных конфликтов и опустошительных набегов.

Поздняя античность

I раздел Армянского царства

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Провинции Великой Армении. George Whiston, опубликована в 1736 году.
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Великая Армения в I—IV веках, по карте-вкладышу ко II тому «Всемирной истории» (М., 1956) (Заштрихованы земли Великой Армении, отошедшие от неё к соседним государствам после раздела в 387 году). В центре Марзпанская Армения V—VII века.

Термин «Восточная Армения» впервые был употреблён в конце IV века, когда Великая Армения, став ареной соперничества между Римской империей и Сасанидской Персией, была разделена в 387 году на Восточную и Западную. Ашхары Сюник, Васпуракан, Туруберан, Айрарат, Парсаайк, Корчайк, Мокк, Тайк и Пайтакаран образовали вассальную область под владычеством Сасанидов. Остальная часть Великой Армении вошла в состав Римской империи (Ахдзник, Цопк, Бардзр Айк) и соседних государств: к Иберии отошла провинция Гугарк, к Албании — Арцах и Утик. Территориальные пределы Армении были резко сокращены.

На первое время в Западной и Восточной Армении была сохранена номинальная власть армянских царей династии Аршакидов, но уже в 428 году (а в Римской части — в 391 году) она была низвержена, и последний представитель этой династии — Арташес IV, был лишён царского престола. С этого периода Восточная Армения называлась также «Перс-Армения» и стала персидским марзпанством Армения (управлялась персидским наместником). При этом, с 462 года, Арцах и Утик вошли в соседнее Албанское марзпанство.

Персидские наместники всячески пытались «иранизировать» местное армянское христианское население путём насильственного распространения зороастризма. Подобные процессы происходили также в других сферах — культуре и архитектуре. Это делалось прежде всего для разрыва духовных и культурных связей армян с Византией. Однако действия властей Персии вызвали обратную реакцию — начинается быстрый культурный подъём армянского населения: в 405 году создаётся армянский алфавит, возникает национальная письменность, появляются переводы Библии (в 433 году Библия впервые была переведена на армянский язык), выходят на свет большое количество литературы, появляются армянские историки (Фавстос Бузанд, Агатангелос, Мовсес Хоренаци, Егише, Езник Кохбаци и др.), строится большое количество новых церквей.

В 450 году вспыхивает восстание под предводительством Вардана Мамиконяна, целью которого было остановить насильственную религиозную ассимиляцию, проводимую наместниками персидского шаханшаха на территории Армении. Результатом восстания (см. Аварайрская битва) стало предоставление определённых прав и свобод армянскому населению, а также отказ от его ассимиляции.

Однако через 30 лет политика ассимиляции армян началась вновь, что послужило причиной начала очередного восстания (так называемой Ваанской войны, 481—484), закончившейся победой армян во главе с Вааном Мамиконяном. В результате, шахом Персии была подтверждена автономия марзпанства Армения.

II раздел Армении

В 591 году Армения вновь была разделена. Значительная часть армянских земель в составе государства Сасанидов отошла Византии по результатам Ирано-византийской войны (571—591), а именно: Туруберан, Айрарат, Тайк и Гугарк.

Средние века

Первые арабские завоевания в регионе начались с 40-х годов VII века. Только к концу VIII века арабам удалось подчинить себе значительные территории Армении, кроме территории Нагорного Карабаха, где армянское население смогло организовать сопротивление и дать отпор арабам, сохранив свой автономный статус. Наряду с этим, арабские племена начали переселяться на территорию Армении.

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Восточная Армения (Armenia orientalis), Филипп Бюаш, 1740 год.

В 885 году было образовано Армянское царство Багратидов. Оно охватывало бо́льшую часть Восточной Армении. В Восточной Армении находилась часть Анийского царства — Сюник (позднее Сюникское царство), Гугарк (позднее Ташир-Дзорагетское царство) и ХаченНагорном Карабахе).

Первые набеги огуз-туркменских племён, нахлынувших из Средней Азии и утвердившихся в Персии и других частях Передней Азии в Армению, были зафиксированы в самом начале XI века, когда были атакованы Васпураканское и Анийское царства. К 1070-м годам (Битва при Манцикерте), сельджуки распространили своё влияние практически на всю Армению и большую часть Анатолии, вынуждая тысячи армян мигрировать (в частности, в Иранский Азербайджан). Армянское национально-государственное устройство продолжало существовать только в Сюнике (Сюникское царство), Ташире (Лори), ХаченеНагорном Карабахе) и Сасуне.

Эти вторжения были не просто военными завоеваниями, вместе с армиями перемещались целые кочевые, тюркоязычные племена, миграция которых в Армению к XVI веку привела к катастрофическим изменениям в этнической структуре населения региона, они обосновались в северо-западных районах Персии (Азербайджане, исторической области к югу от реки Аракс) и Армении. Многочисленные кочевые племена на протяжении целого ряда веков перемещались на территорию Армении и селились в богатых районах с обширными пастбищами.

В 1236 году начались набеги монголов во главе с Чингисханом. К 1245 году, монголы смогли подчинить себе значительную территорию Армении. Монгольские завоевания были разрушительными для армянского населения: множество городов было разорено, осуществлялись массовые убийства. Происходила миграция монгольских племён на территорию Армении, что ещё больше усилило демографические изменения, начавшиеся при сельджуках, а армянское население региона продолжало сокращаться. Население подвергалось несправедливому налогообложению, и только Армянской церкви предоставлялись определённые привилегии.

В период Византийско-сельджукских войн, армяне, составляющие на тот момент большинство населения Восточной Армении, сохраняли своё государственное устройство и свою христианскую веру.

В 1385 году хан Тохтамыш уводит в плен из Арцаха, Сюника и Парскаайка десятки тысяч армян, a с 1386 года и до начала XV века, Армения подвергается разрушительным походам Тамерлана (было уничтожено огромное число людей, а часть была пленена). Его войска дошли до Сюника, Нахичевани и далее двинулись в направлении Эрзерумского . В этот период, земли и пастбища отнимались у местного армянского населения, разорялись целые города (в частности, был разграблен город Ван), происходило массовое заселение территории Армении пришлыми тюркскими кочевниками, а ислам становился доминирующей религией. Число армянского населения уменьшалось.

Автор XIX века Аббас Бакиханов так описывал этот период:

Эмир Теймур (Тамерлан) переселил 50 тысяч семейств каджаров в Кавказский край и поселил их в Эриване, Гандже и Карабаге, где они в течение времени еще более умножились. Многие из этих каджаров при сефевидских шахах были государственными деятелями и управляли Армениею и Ширваном. Это от них произошли эриванские и ганджинские ханы …

В течение XV века части территорий Армении и Персии входили в состав государств, созданных пришлыми тюркскими кочевыми племенами Кара-Коюнлу и Ак-Коюнлу, ведущими междоусобные войны. Армянское население уводилось в плен, а после столетий систематических войн между потомками Тамерлана (Шах Рух) и правителями Кара-Коюнлу (Кара Юсуф, его сыновья Искандар-хан и Джаханшах), на армянском нагорье, которые разорили территорию Армении, многие армяне были вынуждены массово эмигрировать.

В этот период происходил процесс вытеснения армянского населения пришлыми тюркскими кочевниками, территория Армении опустошалась. Значительное число армян стало искать защиты со стороны Русских княжеств и, в дальнейшем, у образованного Русского государства. Только из Сюника были насильственно переселены в район Лори около 6000 домов.

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Восточная Армения на карте Персидской империи. Джон Пинкертон, 1818 год.

Невзирая на иностранное господство, усилиями армянских мирян и духовных лидеров, правитель государства Кара Коюнлу Джаханшах-хан, с целью привлечения на свою сторону армянского населения в борьбе против соперничающих кланов, назначил ряд армянских нахараров (князей) в областях Сюник (включая Вайоц Дзор), Арцах и Гугарк. А с целью привлечения симпатий духовенства, он согласился содействовать в восстановлении церквей и перенесению престола в Вагаршапат (Эчмиадзин). Джаханшах распорядился также освободить от государственных налогов Татевский и другие монастыри. В 1441 году центральный орган Армянской Апостольской церкви — престол Верховного патриарха и Католикоса всех армян, был перенесён из Киликии, где он находился с 1149 года, в Эчмиадзинский монастырь — её древнейший исторический центр на территории Армении, а Армянскую церковь признавали правители мусульманских стран региона. Однако все эти позитивные меры не помешали ему при очередном походу пленить около 1500 армян в районе Муша, Битлиса и Ахлата.

Постоянные войны и опустошительные набеги разорили территорию Армении, а армянское население подвергалось грабежу и уводу в рабство (уводили в том числе и младенцев). Огромное число армян постепенно покидало свою родную землю и иммигрировало. Мусульманские правители Армении пытались ассимилировать армянское население путём его отказа от христианства и принятия ислама. Христиане должны были носить различные метки для своей идентификации. Многочисленные войны тюркских племён, велись в основном за счёт уплаты огромных налогов, взимаемых с армянского населения на подконтрольных территориях.

С самого начала XVI века огромный ущерб Армении нанесли непрерывные Турецко-персидские войны, которые велись за контроль в том числе и над её территорией. В этот период обеими армиями опустошались огромные территории Армении, вынуждая армянское население мигрировать, что в итоге приводило к серьёзному сокращению его численности на территориях исторической Армении. Например, во время Турецко-персидской война (1514—1555), персидский Шах Исмаил I прибегнул к тактике разрушения деревень, чтобы остановить наступающие османские войска, чем вынудил тысячи армян покинуть свои дома.

В 1555 году был подписан Мир в Амасье — мирный договор между Сефевидами и Османской империей, разделивший Закавказье и Армению между державами: турки сохранили контроль над городами и ближайшими районами Мосул, Мараш, Ван, Алашкерт, Баязет и Западной Грузии, Сефевиды — Ширван и Тебриз. В ходе войны, сильно пострадало местное армянское население.

Османское господство над частью Восточной Арменией продолжалось в течение чуть более 15 лет и было установлено в результате Турецко-персидской войны (1578—1590). Согласно условиям Стамбульского мирного договора (1590), Персия отказывалась от Тебриза, Ширвана и остальной части Грузии. За годы османского контроля, территории Восточной Армении и всего Закавказья (1578—1607), турецкие власти подвергали армянское население постоянным грабежам и притеснениям. Депортации армянского населения, которой подверглись тысячи человек, происходили в Тебризе, Ване, Карабахе и Нахичевани. Вместо армян османские власти массово заселяли эти территории, включая Сюник и Араратскую долину, пришлыми курдами.

Однако в 1603 году, воспользовавшись анархией, царящей на территории Восточной Анатолии и Армении, шах Персии Аббас I начал новую Турецко-персидскую войну. По его приказу, сефевидская армия осуществляла тактику выжженной земли против османов в Араратской долине, разоряя и уничтожая армянские города и сёла что бы они не могли достаться туркам. По его приказу, из Восточной Армении на территорию Персии были выселены от 250 тыс. до 350 тыс. армян. Только из одного города Джульфа (Джуга) и его окрестных селений, было депортировано 12 000 армянских семей. На места проживания изгнанных армян селились кочевые курды и тюркские племена. Персия вернула себе всю территорию, утраченную по результатам предыдущей войны.

Как отмечает Энциклопедия Ираника: «На протяжении своей многовековой истории армянский народ ещё не подвергался столь серьёзной катастрофе». В районе города Исфахан, переселенцы основали район Новая джульфа, где впоследствии создали крупный центр международной торговли, в том числе и с Россией.

Новое время

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Границы Сефевидской и Османской империй согласно условиям Зухабского мира, 1639
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Российская Армения, карта 1828 года

На протяжении нескольких столетий Османская и Сефевидская империи вели постоянные войны за контроль территории Закавказья и Кавказа (включая территорию Армении). Эти события стали причиной ещё более крупных волн миграции армян с ее территории, а также разорением и обезлюдиванием территории Армении и поселением кочевых курдов и тюрок на оставленные армянами земли. Противостояние двух государств завершилось Зухабским мирным договором (1639), согласно которому была установлена новая граница. Произошло ещё одно разделение Армении. Начало новой границы было положено в районе Джавахского хребта, далее следует по реке Ахурян, граница проходила по хребту Армянских гор (западным сколам Большого Арарата) соединяясь с горной системой Загрос. Западнее новой границы оказались территории Западной (2/3 исторической Армении), восточнее — Восточной (Персидской) Армении (1/3).

Восточная Армения в составе Сефевидской Персии была поделена на две административные единицы: Чухур-Саад (включала исторические армянские провинции Айрарат, Гугарк, Васпуракан и Парскаайк) и Карабахское беглербегство (частично, а именно: провинции Арцах, Сюник (Зангезур), Утик и Пайтакаран).

Некоторые крупные города Восточной Армении, расположенные на пересечении важнейших торговых путей из Азии в Европу и наоборот, на протяжении многих веков служили перевалочными базами и местами хранения товаров из Персии, Индии и Китая. Через эту территорию шли торговые пути на рынки России, Османской империи и Западной Европы.

С конца XVIII и до вхождение в состав России (XIX в.), четыре ханства в составе Персии составляли территорию Восточной Армении: Эриванское, Нахичеванское (включая ряд поселений к югу от реки Аракс), Карабахское (включая Зангезур) и Гяднжинское.

Переселение кочевых племён на богатые земли вдоль рек Армянского нагорья, происходившее в течение целого ряда веков, обратило вспять историческое преобладание армянского населения. В связи с постоянной миграцией мусульманского населения на территорию Восточной Армении, насильственной депортацией армян, проведённой шахом Аббасом, и постоянным разорительным набегам и войнам, к началу XIX века «едва ли треть её населения были армянами», армяне сохранили значительное большинство лишь в горных районах Карабаха и Сюника (включая Зангезур). На территории современной Гянджи армяне также стали меньшинством.

С начала XIX века, территории Восточной Армении поэтапно входили в состав Российской империи в результате Русско-персидских (1804—1813 и 1826—1828) и русско-турецкой (1828—1829) войн (согласно условиям Гюлистанского, Туркманчайского и Андрианопольского мирных договоров).

К началу XX века, территория Восточной Армении включала в себя Эриванскую и, частично, Тифлисскую и Елисаветпольскую губернии . Восточная Армения находилась в составе Российской империи вплоть до распада последней в 1917 году (см. Восточная Армения в составе Российской империи).

См. также

  • Восточная Армения в составе Российской империи
  • Западная Армения
  • Армения (исторический регион)
  • История Армении
  • Хронология истории Армении
  • Хронология армянской государственности
  • Исторические миграции армянского населения

Примечания

Комментарии

  1. Согласно договору, Османская империя признавала переход к России Эриванского и Нахичеванского ханств (переданных годом ранее Персией по Туркманчайскому договору)

Источники

  1. Suny, 1996, p. 69: «Eastern Armenia, thereafter known as Russian or Transcaucasian Armenia».
  2. Волкова, 1969, с. 23: «Восточная Армения — Араратская долина с прилегающими к ней горными областями Малого Кавказа (Лори, Иджеван, Зангезур и др.) — была центром формирования армянской нации».
  3. Matthee, Morgan, 1999, p. 23: «Their activity centered on various towns in eastern Armenia, of which Julfa was the most prominent».
  4. Bournoutian, 1982, p. 53: «… Eastern Armenia, a segment of the Armenian plateau, is located in the south-western and most elevated part of Transcaucasia. It is composed of a series of mountain chains surrounding the Plain of Ararat and the Arax Valley. The nothern boundary follows the Pambak and Arguni chains and runs above the nothern extremity of lake Sevan…».
  5. Hacikyan and others, 2000, pp. 9—12.
  6. Bournoutian, 1980, p. 1: «…The Arpachay (Soviet: Akhurian) River became the "boundary" between the two empires; lands west of the river were soon known as Western or Turkish Armenia, while the territories east of Arpachay assumed the title of Eastern or Persian Armenia.».
  7. Barry, 2019, p. 65, 97, 241.
  8. Bournoutian, 1994, pp. 44—45: «In 1639, the Iranians and Ottomans ended their long period of hostility and partitioned Armenia. Two-thirds of historic Armenia became known as western or Turkish Armenia, while the remaining one-third became eastern or Persian Armenia. The division lasted for over two centuries, until Russia conquered eastern Armenia and made it Russian Armenia.».
  9. Новосельцев, Пашуто, Черепнин, 1972, с. 45.
  10. Смирин, 1958, с. Гл. XXI.
  11. The encyclopedia of Islam. Vol. I, 1986, p. 640.
  12. Michael P. Croissant, 1998, p. 9: «At the time, much of the focus was on the heartland of Turkish Armenia, but two regions in Transcaucasian Armenia also stirred significant irredentist feelings: Nagorno-Karabakh and Nakhichevan—both of which were attached to Azerbaijan under the imperial Russian system of administration».
  13. Carter, Arbeitman, 2000, p. 85: «With the exception of the period of Arabic influence over Armenia during the Caliphate (7th-9th centuries A.D.), this Persian power extended from the time Darius the Great until the early 19th century, when the Russian Empire took over the control of Caucasian Armenia and, increasingly under the Soviet period ….».
  14. Encyclopedia Iranica. Armenian and Iran II: «From the political viewpoint, which alone is relevant here, “Persarmenia” has the broader meaning of the whole Armenian area under Persian rule (as opposed to the Roman Armenia). It must not be confused with the late geographical term of Parskahaykʿ or “Persarmenia,” a province which lay north and west of the lake Urmia and bordered on Adiabene and Atropatene».
  15. Encyclopædia Iranica. Armenian and Iran IV: «…whereas the far greater eastern part of the country, the so-called “Great Armenia” or the “Persarmenia” of the Byzantine historiographers….».
  16. Garsoian, 2004: «The abolition of the Arsacid monarchy followed soon thereafter: in ca. 390 on the Roman side and by 428 in the Sasanian portion, which was soon to take the name of Persarmenia.».
  17. The encyclopedia of Islam. Vol. I, 1986, p. 634.
  18. Knight, 1866, p. 1145: «The province of Nakhichevan, which forms the south-eastern part of Russian Armenia, is divided into two districts— Nakhichevan and Ordoobad».
  19. Blackwood and sons, 1849, p. 589.
  20. Bournoutian, 1997, p. 106.
  21. Hovannisian, 1971, p. 31.
  22. Bournoutian, 2018, p. 20.
  23. Hewsen, 1997, p. 17.
  24. Bournoutian, 2003, p. 215.
  25. Худобашев, 1859, с. 25.
  26. The encyclopedia of Islam. Vol. I, 1986, p. 643.
  27. Bournoutian, 1994, p. 40: «In present-day terms, historic Armenia comprised a large parts of eastern Turkey, the northeastern corner of Iran, parts of the Azerbaijan and Georgian republics, as well as the entire territory of the Armenian Republic. It was defined by a number of natural boundaries: the Kura River, separating the Armenian highlands from Caspian and Georgian lowlands in the east and northeast; the Taurus-Zagros chains, connecting to the Iranian Plateau and separating Armenia from Kurdistan and Iran in the south and southwest, and Euphrates River, marking and western boundary of historic Armenia».
  28. Leonard, 2006, p. 87: «Historic or Greater Armenia includes not only the Republic of Armenia but also a small area in northeastern Iran, most of the eastern part of Turkey, and secitions of the present republics of Azerbaijan and Georgia».
  29. Encyclopedia Iranica. Armenian and Iran II: «and a different road crossing Armenia southeast to northwest was taken by Xenophon in 401 B.C. He mentions the province’s division into Eastern Armenia and Western Armenia, separated by the Teleboas (Kara-sū) river (Anabasis 4.4.3);».
  30. Bournoutian, 1982, p. 53: «Eastern Armenia, a segment of the Armenian plateau, is located in the southwestern and most elevated part of Transcaucasia. It is composed of a series of mountain chains surrounding the Plain of Ararat and the Arax Valley. The northern boundary follows the Pambak and Arguni chains and tuns above the northern extremity of Lake Sevan (T. Gékchay). This lake is on a still higher plateau, which is separated from the rest of Eastern Armenia by the Kura (P. Kur) River, the Vardenis (T. Gézal-Dara) Mountainsb,y the deep ravine carved by the Arax River, and by the Geghama (T. Aghmaghan) Mountains. Running perpendicular to the Pambak and extending along the borders of Lake Sevan are the Sevan (T. Shah-Dagh), Ganje, and Karabagh mountain chains, which eventually join the Siunik-Zangezur (T. Daralogéz) chain. These, in turn, take a southward course in the direction of the Karadagh chain and Tabriz, forming the eastern boundary of the region. The southern section of Eastern Armenia begins northwest of Tabriz, between Zangezur and the Arax, and runs to the Sharur plain. Continuing to the southwest, it reaches Mount Ararat in the Haykakan Par (T. Aghri-Dagh) Mountains. The highlands of Shirak (Shuragél) and Akhaltsikh, watered by the Akhurian (T. Arpachay), form the western periphery of Eastern Armenia».
  31. Гадло, 1998: «Араратская долина делит землю армян на две части - восточную и западную. Она же является центром армянской культуры и государственности. Процесс формирования армянской народности в основном завершился в VII-VI вв. до н. э., когда на территории Армянского нагорья возникло первое армянское рабовладельческое государство (Государство Ервандуни), объединившее местные кавказкоязычные и пришлые индоевропейские племена.».
  32. Encyclopedia Iranica. Armenian and Iran II: «… and a different road crossing Armenia southeast to northwest was taken by Xenophon in 401 B.C. He mentions the province’s division into Eastern Armenia and Western Armenia, separated by the Teleboas (Kara-sū) river (Anabasis 4.4.3);».
  33. Encyclopædia Iranica. Armenian and Iran IV.
  34. Encyclopædia Iranica. Armenian and Iran IV: «Though the Christianization of Armenia in the third century and its rise to Armenian official religion shortly after 300 A.D. loosened the close ties between Iranians and Armenians, ties that had until then been close even in matters of creed, little changed in the political situation even under the Sasanians (who ruled over Iran from 224 A.D.), until the Armenian apple of discord was finally divided between Romans and Sasanians in 387 A.D.: Western Armenia came under the rule of the Romans and later the Byzantines, whereas the far greater eastern part of the country, the so-called “Great Armenia” or the “Persarmenia” of the Byzantine historiographers, came under Persian control and was fully annexed by Bahrām V Gōr some years later, in 428 A.D., and from then governed only by Sasanian margraves.».
  35. Subcommittee on Economic Stabilization, 1990, p. 274: «… being found at its southeastern edge adjoining the Armenian province of Zangezur».
  36. Encyclopædia Iranica. Armenian and Iran VI: «Meanwhile, in the provinces of Arcʿax and Siwnikʿ in eastern Armenia (Qarabāḡ and Zangezūr)…».
  37. Levene, 2013, p. 217: «… in formerly Russian-controlled eastern Armenia as far as Nakhichevan and Zangezur».
  38. Adalian, 2010, p. xlv: «... in Zangezur and Kharabakh in eastern Armenia».
  39. Bournoutian, 1997, pp. 81—82, 89: «
    P. 81—82: At the start of the sixteenth century, Armenia became the center of conflict between the Ottoman sultans and the Safavid shahs of Persia. After continuous warfare between the two empires, a compromise was finally leached by the Treaty of Zuhab in 1639. Under this agreement, the Ottomans recognized almost all of Transcaucasia as being part of Persia. The plain of Shuragial and the Arpachai River became a sort of boundary; Armenian lands east of that zone were considered part of Persia, and all lands west of it fell into the Ottoman sphere. The terms "Eastern" or "Persian" Armenia and 'Turkish" or "Western" Armenia were soon coined by contemporary travelers, geographers, and historians.
    For the next eight decades Eastern Armenia remained under the control of the Safavids, who divided it into two administrative units: Chukhur-i Sa'ad, or the territory of Erevan and Nakhichevan; and Karabagh, formed from the combined regions of Karabagh, Zangezur (Siunik) and Ganja.
    P. 89: Hence by the second haf of the eighteenth century, Eastern Armena was composed of four khanates: Erevan, Nakhichevan (which included a number of settlements south of Araxes River), Karabakh (which included Zangezur), and Ganja.».
  40. Петрушевский, 1949, с. 62: «Большая часть кавказской Армении входила в состав Ереванской, или Чухур-Са'дской, области (вилайета). Остальная часть Армении (Шарур, Даралагез и Зангезур) вместе с частью северного Азербайджана, расположенной между pp. Курой и Араксом (Арран), составляла Карабагскую или Ганджинскую область (вилайет)».
  41. Adalian, 2010, p. xlv: «… in Zangezur and Kharabakh in eastern Armenia».
  42. Шнирельман, 2003, с. 236—237.
  43. Avakian, 2008, p. 106.
  44. Bournoutian, 1997, p. 89: «Hence by the second haf of the eighteenth century, Eastern Armena was composed of four khanates: Erevan, Nakhichevan (which included a number of settlements south of Araxes River), Karabakh (which included Zangezur), and Ganja».
  45. Kerr, T. Wright, E. Wright, 2015, p. 35: «The Republic of Armenia comprises the north-eastern part of the historic kingdom of Armenia».
  46. Hacikyan and others, 2000, p. 9: «At the close of the eighteenth century, th Eastern Armenian khanates of Yerevan, Nakhijevan, Karabagh and Ganja were under Iranian rule.».
  47. Michael P. Croissant, 1998, pp. 9, 11: «9: At the time, much of the focus was on the heartland of Turkish Armenia, but two regions in Transcaucasian Armenia also stirred significant irredentist feelings: Nagorno-Karabakh and Nakhichevan—both of which were attached to Azerbaijan under the imperial Russian system of administration
    11: Importantly, disunion amongst the five princes allowed the establishment of a foothold in mountainous Karabakh by a Turkic tribe around 1750. This event marked the first time that Turks were able to penetrate the eastern Armenian highlands…».
  48. Bournoutian, 1994, p. 44: «Only pockets such as Karabagh (Karabakh) and Zangezur in eastern Armenia and Sasun and Zeitun in western Armenia remained autonomous».
  49. Minahan, 2002: «After repeated rebellions, independence, and reconquest, the last of the Armenian kingdom was conquered by the Arab Mamelukes in 1375. The only reamaining autonomous pockets of Armenian were in Karabakh and Zangezour, bothe in eastern Armenia».
  50. Vartanesyan, 2008, p. 208: «The history manuscript also notes the significance of the date 1620 as "the yeasr eight families of skilled laborers emigrated from Karabakh (Eastern Armenia) to Afion Karahissar (Central Turkey)…».
  51. Subcommittee on Economic Stabilization, 1990, pp. 274—275: «… and in 1813, Russia formally occupide much of Eastern Armenia, including Karabagh.».
  52. Петрушевский, 1949, с. 62: «Большая часть кавказской Армении входила в состав Ереванской, или Чухур-Са'дской, области (вилайета). Остальная часть Армении (Шарур, Даралагез и Зангезур) вместе с частью северного Азербайджана, расположенной между pp. Курой и Араксом (Арран), составляла Карабагскую или Ганджинскую область (вилайет)».
  53. Walker, 1996, p. 90: «Among the longest survivors (and here the mountain systems interrelate with historical detail) were the princes of eastern Armenia, specifically those of Siunik (modern Zangezur and Nakhichevan) and Artsakh (sometimes known as Pokr Siunik or small Siunik, modern Karabakh). Siunik encompassed all of the shoreline of Lake Sevan, except the northernmost part (which belonged to the Ayrarat region), and stretched south as far as the Hagar (Akera) and Vorotan rivers. Artsakh encompassed the territory of the NKAO and extended, as a long and slim band of territory, almost as far again to the northwest, beyond the River Akstafa, and the southeast as far as the River Arax.».
  54. Subcommittee on Economic Stabilization, 1990, p. 274: «… being found at its southeastern edge adjoining the Armenian province of Zangezur».
  55. Худобашев, 1859, с. 23—24.
  56. Hewsen, 1984, pp. 43, 44: «43: Therefore, I shall confine myself to the circumstances which surrounded and made possible the survival of autonomous enclaves in Eastern Armenia; that is, in Siwnik' and Karabagh, and in particular to what I shall call the "Kingdom of Arc'ax," which flourished, however feebly or fitfully, from the eleventh through thirteenth centuries
    44:As the Turks and their various Muslim vassals began to falter in the twelfth century, Georgia expanded into northern and eastern Armenia, capturing Ani, Dvin and Kars, and all of Siwnik', wisely placing these regions under Armenian vassal princes, and reducing to the same vassalage the rulers of Dizak and XaС'en».
  57. Hewsen, 2001, p. 119.
  58. Encyclopædia Iranica. Armenian and Iran VI: «However, Prince Smbat of the Orbelid feudal dynasty ruling in the province of Siwnikʿ in southeastern Armenia, …».
  59. Hewsen, 1984, p. 43: «Therefore, I shall confine myself to the circumstances which surrounded and made possible the survival of autonomous enclaves in Eastern Armenia; that is, in Siwnik' and Karabagh, and in particular to what I shall call the "Kingdom of Arc'ax," which flourished, however feebly or fitfully, from the eleventh through thirteenth centuries».
  60. Bayarsaikhan, 2011, p. 75: «Iwanē’s sister Dop‘i married Hasan, the prince of Arts‘akh in eastern Armenia , receiving a large area on the southern shore of Lake Sevan and the district Sot‘k in Siwnik‘. They were known as Dop‘ians’.».
  61. Яновский, 1846, с. 97.
  62. Дорн, 1875, с. 187.
  63. Marquart, 1901, p. 358.
  64. Pauly, Wissowa и др., 1894.
  65. Юшков, 1937.
  66. Новосельцев, 1979.
  67. Страбон, 1994, с. XI, XIV, 4: «В самой Армении много гор и плоскогорий, где с трудом растёт даже виноградная лоза; много там и долин, причём одни из них не отличаются особенным плодородием, другие же, напротив, чрезвычайно плодородны, например равнина Аракса, по которой река Аракс течёт до границ Албании, впадая в Каспийское море. За этой равниной идёт Сакасена, тоже граничащая с Албанией и с рекой Киром; ещё далее идёт Гогарена. Вся эта страна полна дикими плодами и плодами деревьев, выращенных человеком, и вечнозелёными растениями; здесь растёт даже маслина. Провинцией Армении являются Фавена, а также Комисена и Орхистена, выставляющая наибольшее число всадников.».
  68. Еремян, 1963.
  69. Ширакаци, 1877.
  70. Плиний Старший, 77, с. 28—29, 39.
  71. Кассий, с. Кн. XXXVI, гл. 53,4; 54,1; 54,4; 54,5. Кн. XXXVII, гл. 2, 3, 4..
  72. Бузанд, 1953, с. Кн. III, гл.7. Кн. V, гл.13..
  73. Хоренаци, 1990, с. Кн. II, гл.8, 65.
  74. Плутарх, I—II в, с. Гл. 34—35.
  75. Hewsen, 2001, p. 101.
  76. Hewsen, 1992, p. 266: «It was surnamed Sahastan by the Armenians to distinguish it from Gandzak/Ganja in eastern Armenia».
  77. Bayarsaikhan, 2011, p. 14: «From the comments he left about himself, we may conclude that Vardan Arevelts‘i was born around 1200 in the region of Gandzak in north-eastern Armenia».
  78. Toumanoff, 1963, p. 129: «The south-eastern group was comprised of the provinces of Otene or Uti, Arts'akh, Caspiane or P'aytakaran, and, between the last two and west of them, Siunia or Siunik'; the south-western group contained the provinces of Tayk' and of Upper Armenia.».
  79. Гринцер, Мелетинский и др., 1984, с. 285—288.
  80. Корюн, 1962.
  81. Страбон, 1994, с. XI, XIV, 5: «В самой Армении много гор и плоскогорий, где с трудом растёт даже виноградная лоза; много там и долин, причём одни из них не отличаются особенным плодородием, другие же, напротив, чрезвычайно плодородны, например равнина Аракса, по которой река Аракс течёт до границ Албании, впадая в Каспийское море. За этой равниной идёт Сакасена, тоже граничащая с Албанией и с рекой Киром; ещё далее идёт Гогарена. Вся эта страна полна дикими плодами и плодами деревьев, выращенных человеком, и вечнозелёными растениями; здесь растёт даже маслина. Провинцией Армении являются Фавена, а также Комисена и Орхистена, выставляющая наибольшее число всадников.».
  82. Bournoutian, 1980, p. 1.
  83. Michael P. Croissant, 1998, p. 4: «Armenia's strategic position has exposed her to repeated invasion … In all such clashes of empires, the Armenians have found themselves between two warring camps.».
  84. Bournoutian, 1997, p. 94.
  85. von Haxthausen, 1854, pp. 249, 251: «249:... the country through which passed all the armies of the East, and in which more battles were fought and more blood flowed than in any other. Here ne- vertheless were always opulent towns, destroyed per- haps one day, but rebuilt the next; whilst the whole country uniformly wore a flourishing aspect.
    251: Armenia has suffered innumerable devastations by Persians, Greeks, Arabs, Mongols, and Turks.».
  86. Encyclopædia Iranica. Armenian and Iran VI.
  87. Michael P. Croissant, 1998, pp. 3—4: «3: On countless occasions throughout history, these phenomena have made the Transcaucasus the locus of competition, and often battle, between surrounding powers. Transcaucasia first became a sustained center of imperial rivalry in the first century B.C., when the region became a major battleground between the Roman Empire and the Arsacid dynasty of Iran. For several centuries thereafter, the area, and Armenia in particular, continued to be an object of heated contention between Rome and successive Iranian dynasties. With the passing of time, the Roman presence in the Transcaucasus was replaced by Byzantium and the Iranian presence by the Arabs; then, in 1071, the Byzantines were defeated by the Turks at the Battle of Manzikert, and Transcaucasia fell under the sway of the Seljuk Empire. Following the replacement of the Seljuks by the Mongols and then the Ottomans in the thirteenth century, the Transcaucasus became a locus of competition between an expansionist Ottoman Turkey and Safavid Iran by the early sixteenth century.
    4: Situated strategically between Europe and Asia, it has attracted countless waves of human migrants and been the locus of almost continuous expansionism and competition between surrounding states.».
  88. Kouymjian, 1997, p. 2; 22: «Rival Islamic dynasties struggled to dominate it and in so doing to exploit its resources. The structure of Armenian life was badly damaged, nearly destroyed, and, finally, changed. Self-rule became a dream to be fulfilled».
  89. Григорян, 1959, с. 10.
  90. Смирин, 1958, с. Глава VIII: «Иран вынужден был заключить с Византией договор о дружбе и уступить ей часть Картли до Тбилиси и часть Восточной Армении до озера Ван. На освобождённой от персов части Картли утвердился местный князь. В Албании в конце VI в. возродилась местная государственность во главе с наследственным князем. В оставшихся под властью Ирана частях Картли и Армении иранское правительство также должно было пойти на значительные уступки местной знати. Но положение крестьянства оставалось по-прежнему тяжёлым. После победы Византии над сасанидским Ираном (628 г.) его владычество в странах Закавказья фактически пало, хотя и власть Византии являлась там лишь номинальной.».
  91. Рыбаков, Алаев, Ашфарян и др., 2002, с. 30.
  92. Michael P. Croissant, 1998, p. 10.
  93. Петросян, 2017, с. 52—53.
  94. Hewsen, 1997, p. 15.
  95. Mokyr, 2003, p. 157.
  96. Encyclopædia Iranica. Armenian and Iran IV: «until the Armenian apple of discord was finally divided between Romans and Sasanians in 387 A.D.: Western Armenia came under the rule of the Romans and later the Byzantines, whereas the far greater eastern part of the country, the so-called “Great Armenia” or the “Persarmenia” of the Byzantine historiographers, came under Persian control and was fully annexed by Bahrām V Gōr some years later, in 428 A.D., and from then governed only by Sasanian margraves.».
  97. The Biographical Dictionary, 1844, p. 680: «Having seized Artasires, he deposed him and united his dominions with Persia (A.D. 428). Eastern Armenia was then called Persarmenia».
  98. Петросян, 2017, с. 53.
  99. Петросян, 2017, с. 54—55.
  100. Петросян, 2017, с. 55.
  101. Encyclopædia Iranica. Ayrarat: «After the Byzantine-Persian partition of Armenia in A.D. 591, the emperor Maurice organized his newly acquired territories in east central Armenia into a Byzantine province, which, probably from its elevation relative to the rest of Armenia, was designated Lower Armenia (Armenia Inferior).».
  102. Beaton, Ricks, 1993, p. 86: «Armenian dignitaries moved to Byzantium again after the second partition of Armenia in 591».
  103. Heinz, 1990, p. 289: «As the Byzantine frontier moved eastward after the partition of the Armenian Kingdom ca. 387 and again 591, these norms were apparently extended to the newly annexed territories».
  104. Hewsen, 1997, p. 15: «Nine of these territories were lost in 387, most of them forever; there others — Vaspurakan, Turuberan, and Tayk — emerged only after the Byzantine-Persian partition of Armenia in 591, when the districts of which they were comprised passed under Byzantine control».
  105. Voss-Wittig, 2007, p. 314: «In the partition of Armenia between Perisa and Byzantium, most Armenian territory becomes a dependency of Eastern Rome».
  106. Lea and others, 2001, p. 1.
  107. Stokes, 2009, p. 54: «Arab raids into Armenia began in the 640s.».
  108. Рыбаков, Алаев, Ашфарян и др., 2002, с. 518.
  109. Michael P. Croissant, 1998, pp. 10—11.
  110. Григорян, 1959, с. 11.
  111. Stokes, 2009, p. 54: «The Arab domination of the whole of Armenia was, however, a long and drawn-out process, and it was not until the end of the eighth century that it fell entirely under the control of the Umayyad Caliphate.
    Under the rule of the Arab Abbasids, substantial Arab settlement took place in Armenia…».
  112. Encyclopædia Iranica. Ayrarat: «During the almost 250 years of Arab rule in Armenia (7th-9th cents.), the Bagratids gradually assumed the paramount position among the surviving Armenian princes and ca. 884 were able to establish a new monarchy in central Armenia which included all of Lower Armenia and considerably more territory in eastern Armenia as well.».
  113. Stokes, 2009, p. 54.
  114. Michael P. Croissant, 1998, p. 2: «many tribes settled in the area, and it was incorporated wholly into the Seljuk Empire in 1071».
  115. Bournoutian, 1994, p. 44.
  116. Новосельцев, Пашуто, Черепнин, 1972, с. 47.
  117. Рыбаков, Алаев, Ашфарян и др., 2002, с. 131.
  118. Walker, 1996, p. 92: «The Seljuk Turks invaded and conquered much of eastern Armenia in the eleventh century».
  119. Walker, 2004, p. 92.
  120. Encyclopedia Britannica. Armenia: «The Byzantine conquest was short-lived: in 1048 Toghrïl Beg led the first Seljuq raid into Armenia, in 1064 Ani and Kars fell to Toghrïl’s nephew and heir Alp-Arslan, and after the Battle of Manzikert (1071) most of the country was in Turkish hands. In 1072 the Kurdish Shāddādids received Ani as a fief. A few native Armenian rulers survived for a time in the Kiurikian kingdom of Lori, the Siuniqian kingdom of Baghq or Kapan, and the principates of Khachen (Artzakh) and Sasun.».
  121. The encyclopedia of Islam. Vol. I, 1986, p. 639.
  122. Bournoutian, 2003, p. 205.
  123. Price, 2005, pp. 70—71: «In the eleventh century, the Saljuq rulers of Asia Minor forced thousands of Armenians out of Armenia and into Azerbaijan.».
  124. Рыбаков, Алаев, Ашфарян и др., 2002, с. 515.
  125. The Cambridge History of Iran. Vol. 5., 1968, p. 64: «Alp-Arslan’s victory at Malazgirt also meant that, apart from the districts of Tashir and eastern Siunik', Armenia passes definitely into Muslim hands; and within the nest decade or so, the Byzantines, resolutely anti-Armenian to the end, exterminated several survivors of the native Bagratid and Ardzrunid dynasties.».
  126. Peacock, 2010, p. 113: «By the middle of the eleventh century, the sole Armenian principalities that maintained some sort of independence were Siunik' and Tashir in Caucasia and Sasun to the west of Lake Van.».
  127. Nicolle, Hook, 2013, p. 8.
  128. Peacock, 2010, p. 8: «By the middle of the eleventh century, the sole Armenian principalities that maintained some sort of independence were Siunik' and Tashir in Caucasia and Sasun to the west of Lake Van.».
  129. Bournoutian, 1994, p. 43: «The Seljuk Turkish invasion differed in one significant respect from all other previous invasions of Armenia: The Turkish nomads remained in Armenia, settling on the land and in the mountains.».
  130. Stokes, 2009, p. 54: «The Seljuk period in Armenian history brought substan- tial ethnic changes. There was a renewed wave of conversion to Islam among Armenians and a significant degree ofimmigration into Armenian by Turkic peoples.».
  131. Новосельцев, Пашуто, Черепнин, 1972, с. 46—47: «А затем началось сельджукское нашествие. Оно нанесло первый катастрофический удар по армянскому этносу. Часть Васпуракана, Гохтн, и, наконец, Сюник стали объектом захвата сельджуков в первую очередь.».
  132. Encyclopædia Iranica. Armenian and Iran VI: «From the outset opposing Ottoman Turkey and unifying under the banner of Shiʿism his military forces of Turkish-speaking nomads wandering in Azerbaijan and Armenia and declaring themselves as qezelbāš or šāhsevan, Shah Esmāʿīl, had strong collisions with the Ottoman empire which by that time had reached the zenith of its might. These conflicts continued with only brief intermissions during the time of his successors, almost during the entire 10th/16th century. These ruinous wars, whose main arena was Armenia, seemed to be of dogmatic-religious nature, yet, in reality, they had political, strategic, and economic reasons, the chief among them being the Ottomans’ intention to conquer Transcaucasia, Dagestan (Dāḡestān) and Azerbaijan and to control the trade routes through Armenia and Azerbaijan and the main centers of silk production.».
  133. Price, 2005, p. 71.
  134. Michael P. Croissant, 1998, p. 2: «The next major wave of migration came in the eleventh century, when Turkic tribes began to flow through the area in great numbers as part of their large-scale migration into Asia Minor. The Turks did not merely pass through the Transolly caucasus, however; many tribes settled in the area, and it was incorporated wholly into the Seljuk Empire in 1071. As was the case with each of the other major migrations through the area, the Turks left a lasting mark on the Transcaucasus».
  135. Bournoutian, 2021, p. 1.
  136. Encyclopædia Iranica. Armenian and Iran VI: «In the first decade of the 13th century, the Armeno-Georgian military forces won new victories, challenging both the amirs of Xlaṭʿ and the sultan of Ardabīl, who had embarked upon a marauding raid toward Ani. They occupied the city of Ardabīl. During 1207-08, the domination of the Šah-Armans was eliminated. The Ayyubids came to power, with a more friendly attitude held vis-à-vis the Armeno-Georgian principalities. During 1210-11, the Armeno-Georgian troops, having liberated the whole of eastern Armenia and the larger part of central Armenia, were waging victorious fights against the Īldegoz atabegs of Azerbaijan.
    These invasions were not mere military conquests; moving with the armies were entire nomadic, Turkish-speaking tribes, in migrations which became fateful not only because the foreign Turkish-speaking element established itself permanently in Azerbaijan and Armenia, but also because it spread that language in the northwestern areas of Iran, thereby creating an ethnic barrier between Armenia and Persian-speaking Iran. The penetration of Oḡūz and other Turkish tribes into the Iranian plateau, Azerbaijan, and Armenia, brought about major changes in the ethnic structure of the population of those countries.
    Meanwhile and during the following decades, numerous nomadic Mongol and Turkmen fighting tribes penetrated into Azerbaijan and Armenia and settled permanently in regions which with their rich pastureland and nearby winter shelters were favorable for cattle raising.».
  137. Michael P. Croissant, 1998, p. 2: «Some of these peoples settled in the area, while others merely passed through or were forced out by warfare or other upheavals».
  138. Hewsen, 1992, p. 191.
  139. Stokes, 2009, p. 54: «The Mongol leader Chinggis Khan and his armies reached Armenia in 1236, and by 1245 all of Armenia had fallen under Mongol control. … the Mongol invasion of Armenia proved to be devastating in terms of loss of life and destruction of property. Famine, massacres, Mongol immigration, and Arme- nian emigration intensified the demographic changes that had begun under the Seljuks. The new Mongol overlords imposed high taxes on the population, and this resulted in social unrest and a series of violent rebellions.».
  140. Kouymjian, 1997, p. 2: «The population steadily fled the wars, pillage, famine, and ruin, augmenting already existing Armenian colonies in the Crimea, Central Europe, Constantinople, and the large urban centers of the Ottoman Empire, Syria, and Iran.».
  141. Stokes, 2009, pp. 54—55.
  142. Bournoutian, 1980, p. 11.
  143. Hovannisian. Vol.1, 1997, p. 267.
  144. Рыбаков, Алаев, Ашфарян и др., 2002.
  145. Kouymjian, 1997, p. 3: «Timur-Leng marched through Armenia three times on campaigns of terror and destruction as he passed from his base in the distant east to the shores of the Aegean.».
  146. von Haxthausen, 1854, p. 251: «Under Tamerlane it lost six hundred thousand families, one tenth of whom were led away captive, no one knows whither.».
  147. Payaslian, 2008, p. 103.
  148. Bournoutian, 1994, p. 43: «The Seljuk Turkish invasion differed in one significant respect from all other previous invasions of Armenia: The Turkish nomads remained in Armenia, settling on the land and in the mountains. During the four enturies before the Ottoman Turks conquered Constantinople and entered Europe, the turkification of present-day Turkey took place. The Armenians and Greeks slowly lost their dominance there and became a minority. Emigration, war, and forced conver-sions depleted the Anatolian Christian population significantly.».
  149. Рыбаков, Алаев, Ашфарян и др., 2002, с. 517.
  150. Бакиханов, 1951.
  151. Рыжов, 2004.
  152. Payaslian, 2008, p. 103: «Two Turkoman dynasties, the Kara Koyunlu (Black Sheep) centered at Van and the Ak Koyunlu (White Sheep) at Diarbekir, replaced the Timurids and extended their power across Greater Armenia and Iran».
  153. Смирин, 1958, с. Глава XXII. Государство Сефевидов.
  154. Kouymjian, 1997, pp. 3, 6.
  155. Петрушевский, 1949, с. 35.
  156. Жуков, 1957, с. Гл. XXXVII: «Армения вплоть до середины XV в. подвергалась грабительским набегам кочевников Кара Коюнлу. Деревни были разорены, многие обработанные земли сделались пастбищами для кочевников. Города превратились в незначительные местечки. Армянских феодалов почти полностью заменила кочевая знать тюркоязычных и курдских племён. Часть армянского населения была уведена в плен, часть эмигрировала. Армянские торгово-ремесленные колонии сложились во Львове, в Венеции, в Крыму и т. д.».
  157. Kouymjian, 1997, pp. 4—5.
  158. Price, 2005, p. 71: «Timur's invasion and the Aq Quyunlu and Qara Quyunlu conflicts depopulated Armenia as more of its people were forced to immigrate into Iran in the fifteenth century.».
  159. Kouymjian, 1997, p. 5.
  160. Payaslian, 2008, p. 104: «One of Kara Yusuf's sons, Jihanshah, governor of Armenia and Tabriz (1437-1467-,* after his initial brutalities subsided, appointed a number of Armenian nakharars (nobles) as "princes" of Siunik, Vayots Dzor, Artsakh (Karabagh), and Gugark.».
  161. Kouymjian, 1997, p. 6.
  162. Hille, 2010, p. XLIII.
  163. Encyclopædia Iranica. Armenian and Iran VI: «Through the efforts of Armenian lay and clerical agents in 1441, the central authority of the Armenian church, the See of the Catholicate of all Armenians, was moved from Cilicia where it had been since 1149, and reestablished at the monastery of Echmiadzin, its foundation place in the province of Ararat in central Armenia».
  164. Encyclopedia Britannica. Ejmiatsin.
  165. Payaslian, 2008, p. 104: «Jihanshah also granted permission to rebuild some of the churches and to reinstitute the catholicosate at Echmiadzin in 1441. The catholicosate of Sishad declined since the collapse of the Armenian kingdom in Cilicia, and the ecclesiastical assembly in 1441, which was attended by about 300 clergy and prominent Armenians, decided to return the catholicosate to Echmiadzin, its original location, away from the influences of the Roman Catholic Church.».
  166. Walker, 2004, pp. 92—93.
  167. Bournoutian, 1997, p. 85.
  168. Золотарёв, Авдеев, 1995, с. 367: «Феодалы кочевых и полукочевых курдских и туркменских племён жестоко эксплуатировали армянское население. Турки стремились обратить армян в ислам. По приказу султана производились периодические сборы младенцев, которые воспитывались в особых лагерях, тысячи юношей становились янычарами.».
  169. Bournoutian, 1997, p. 84.
  170. Encyclopædia Iranica. Armenian and Iran VI: «The constant movements of hundreds of thousands of armed fighters and the bloody clashes of the opposing armies devastated the central provinces of the country. The Armenian population was subjected to plunder and slavery. Mass flight and emigration to foreign countries grew to large proportions.».
  171. Гадло, 1998: «Однако неоднократное разрушение в течение XIII-XVI вв. производительных сил страны, массовое уничтожение жителей, разорение селений и городов, привели к упадку хозяйства и возвращению к архаическим социальным отношениям...».
  172. Encyclopædia Iranica. Armenian and Iran VI: «In these confused and critical times, the Muslim chieftains in Armenia intensified their pressure on the remnants of Armenian feudalism and their attempts of assimilation by forced apostasy. During the days of the more fanatic rulers the so-called “Jaʿfarī” law was put to wider use, whereby an Armenian accepting Islam was able to claim as his alone the entire wealth of his parents (see Persidskie dokumenty, document no. 16).».
  173. Рыбаков, Алаев, Ашфарян и др., 2002, с. 496.
  174. Kouymjian, 1997, pp. 7—8.
  175. Price, 2005, p. 71: «Early conquests by the Safavids extended their influence into Transcaucasia and Armenia. The move resulted in the Ottoman invasion of Armenia. These conflicts lasted for decades. The Safavids and Ottomans deported thousands, destroyed hundreds of villages in Armenia, and depopulated entire regions.».
  176. Payaslian, 2008, p. 105: «Meanwhile, Armenia became a battleground between the Ottomans and the emerging Safavid empire (1502–1783) in Iran, as they struggled for regional supremacy, and their constant campaigns and countercampaigns led to westward migration by Armenians.».
  177. Kouymjian, 1997, p. 9.
  178. Bournoutian, 1994, p. 44: «From 1501 until 1639, the two fought each other periodically in Armenia. Armenians were uprooted during these wars…».
  179. Kouymjian, 1997, p. 14.
  180. Bournoutian, 2003, p. 206.
  181. Bournoutian, 2003, p. 207.
  182. Kouymjian, 1997, p. 17.
  183. Payaslian, 2008, p. 105: «The new Safavid leader, Shah Abbas (r. 1588-1629), felt compelled to sign a peace treaty with Murad in 1590, surrendering Tabriz, Shirvan, and parts of eastern Armenia…».
  184. Kouymjian, 1997, pp. 18—19.
  185. Петрушевский, 1949, с. 104.
  186. Encyclopædia Iranica. Armenian and Iran VI: «The external invasions ceased partially only after 1590, when the Safavid Shah Abbās I (r. 996-1038/1588-1629), enthroned two years earlier, was forced to sign a peace agreement of heavy conditions with Sultan Moḥammad III, ceding to him Armenia, the whole of Transcaucasia and Azerbaijan. But after settling his account with the Uzbek amirs who had invaded Khorasan, he reorganized his army with advanced weaponry and in 1603 attacked in order to take back these lands, where the 15-year Turkish domination had created severe discontent within all levels of the population. The new redistributions and dispositions of the Ottoman authorities regarding lands and feudal possessions fostered rebellion of the native feudal elements, and many Armenian, Georgian, and Muslim princes took refuge in Iran, receiving a cordial welcome from Shah ʿAbbās. The working population was subjected to unrestrained plunder and oppression by the authorities assigned by the Ottomans, and many hoped that the new campaign started by the shah would free them from that heavy yoke».
  187. Price, 2005, p. 71: «Shah Abbas moved thousands of Armenians to Iran, and the Ottomans settled thousands of Kurds in Armenia.».
  188. Аракел Даврижеци, 1978: «Только что сменился год и наступил 1054 год армянского летосчисления (1605), был первый армянский месяц навасард,* когда изгнали /41/ жителей страны. И персидские войска, посланные выселять народ, подняв, изгоняли его из деревень и городов, предавали огню и безжалостно сжигали все поселения, дома и обиталища. А также заготовленные впрок сено и солома, пшеница и ячмень и другие припасы – всё было уничтожено и предано огню.
    Так персы разорили и опустошили страну из-за османских войск, дабы не осталось ничего для прокормления их и они оказались бы в опасности. А также чтобы у изгнанного населения при виде этого дрогнуло бы сердце и оно не вернулось бы обратно. И пока персидские войска, назначенные сопровождать народ, выселяли и сгоняли его на Эчмиадзинское поле, а шах Аббас находился в Агджакале, османский сардар Джгал-оглы со своим войском добрался до Карса. Шах Аббас знал, что в [открытом] бою не сможет задержать османов, и, испугавшись многочисленности их, повернул и пошёл со всем войском своим за ратью народной к Персии.».
  189. V. Baladouni, M. Makepeace, 1998, p. XX: «During this protracted campaighn the Shah forcibly moved the Armenian population from Caucasian Armenia to Persia proper, leaving behind scorched cities and villages».
  190. Encyclopædia Iranica. Armenian and Iran VI: «The Safavid army captured Tabrīz, Naḵǰavān and Erevan (Īravān) and extended its incursion to Ganǰa. It also invaded central Armenia, approaching Erzerum. But when news was received that the Ottoman army had already reached Mūš and was preparing to move in the direction of Erevan, the shah decided to avoid battle, and ordered retreat by destroying and depopulating the villages and towns on their way (see ibid., chap. 4). In the course of its history of many centuries, the Armenian people had not yet been subjected to such a major disaster. Central Armenia in its entirety was in disarray. Detachments of qezelbāš soldiers stormed the whole countryside, leaving behind everything totally devastated. Immense masses were being driven from all directions to the Ararat plain to be sent from there to the steppes of central Iran. The strategic aim of this forced deportation was to depopulate the area which the adversary’s army had to traverse. Yet, at the same time the shah was thinking of relocating this large multitude of refugees in the wide areas around his capital and to promote agriculture, crafts, and trade in the central provinces of the country. For this reason he showed particular eagerness in deporting the population of Julfa (Jolfā), the thriving commercial city on the banks of the Aras river.».
  191. Kouymjian, 1997, p. 20.
  192. Bournoutian, 1997, p. 96: «By the end of the eighteenth century, the Armenian population of the territory had shrunk considerably. Centuries of warfare and invasions combined with the tyranny of local khans had forced the emigration of the Armenians. It is probable the until the seventeenth century, the Armenians still maintained a majority in Eastern Armenia, but the forced relocation of some 250,000 Armenians by Shah Abbas and the numerous exoduses described in this chapter had reduced the Armenian population considerably.».
  193. Bournoutian, 1994, p. 44: «Armenians were uprooted during these wars, and, in 1604, some 250,000 Armenians were forcibly transferred by Shah 'Abbas to Iran. By the seventeents century, the Armenian had become a minority in parts of their historic lands».
  194. Encyclopædia Iranica. Armenian and Iran VI: «According to contemporary testimony, the number of deported from this area was in excess of 300,000; the same sources, however, state that in mountainous areas, the population of certain villages succeeded in hiding in the rifts of the mountains and thus avoided the forced exodus».
  195. Bournoutian, 1997, p. 96.
  196. Рыбаков, Белявский и др., 1983, с. 274: «В 1604 г. на Армению обрушилось очередное несчастье: отступая в Иран, Аббас I угнал около 350 тыс. населения, главным образом армянского.».
  197. Bournoutian, 2003, p. 208: «In the summer of 1604, at the news of an Ottoman counteroffensive, 'Abbas laid waste much of the territory between Kars and Ani and deported its Armenians and Muslims into Iranian Azerbaijan. … According to primary sources, some 250,000 to 300,000 Armemians were removed from the region between 1604 and 1605, Thousands died crossing the Arax River. Many of the Armenians were eventually settled in Iranian Azerbaijan, where other Armenians had settled carlier. Some ended up in the Mazandaran region and in the cities of Sultanich, Qazvin, Mashhad, Hamadan and Shiraz. The wealthy Armenians of Julfa were brought to the Safavid capital of Isfahan.».
  198. Jacob Seth, 2005, p. 148: «A large Armenian colony of 12000 families from Julfa on the Araxes, in Armenia settled there in 1605, during the glorious reign of Shah Abbas the Great».
  199. Рыбаков, Алаев, Ашфарян и др., 2000, с. 113: «На место изгнанных армян были поселены тюрки-кызылбаши (каджар и др.).».
  200. Kouymjian, 1997, p. 21.
  201. von Haxthausen, 1854, p. 250.
  202. Encyclopædia Iranica. Armenian and Iran VI: «In the course of its history of many centuries, the Armenian people had not yet been subjected to such a major disaster.».
  203. Payaslian, 2008, p. 105.
  204. Bournoutian, 1997, p. 81.
  205. Payaslian, 2008, p. 105: «Meanwhile, Armenia became a battleground between the Ottomans and the emerging Safavid empire (1502-1783) in Iran, as they struggled for regional supremacy, and their constant campaigns and countercampaigns led to west-ward migration by Armenians.».
  206. Kouymjian, 1997, p. 21: «Armenia had been ruined by more than a hundred years of attacks and counterattacks. Foreign travelers testify that Ararat, Alashkert, Bayazit, and the plain of Nakhichevan were deserted. Nomadic Kurds and Turkmens moved into many of the ravished or abandoned areas. The natural economy of the region was destroyed.».
  207. Bournoutian, 2021, p. 3.
  208. Lea and others, 2001, p. 1: «After many years of dispute, Armenia was partitioned between the Turkish Ottoman Empire (which secured the larger, western part) and the Persian Empire, by the Treaty of Zuhab.».
  209. Bournoutian, 1994, pp. 44—45.
  210. Золотарёв, Авдеев, 1995, с. 367: «В свою очередь, в 1639 г. была окончательно разделена и Армения. Западная Армения отошла к Турции, Восточная — к Ирану. Восточная Армения вошла в основном в состав Эриванского беглербегства и Нахичеванского ханства. Последними остатками армянской государственности являлись пять меликств Нагорного Карабаха. Территория западной Армении вошла в несколько пашалыков и вилайетов Турции.».
  211. Encyclopædia Iranica. Armenian and Iran VI: «The fighting which began with Shah ʿAbbās’ invasion did not end during his reign; it continued with fluctuating success and came to an end only after his death (1038/1629) during the days of his successor Shah Ṣafī, who signed a peace agreement in 1639. By this agreement, the boundaries between the two states which were drawn by the treaty of Amasia in 962/1555 (q.v.), were reconfirmed with minor changes. In accordance with this, in Armenia the Perso-Ottoman boundary began from the mountains of Javaxkʿ, and passing along the Axuryan river, the range of the Armenian mountains, the western slopes of Mt Ararat and along the Vaspurakan mountains joined the Zagros mountains. The Safavid state included within its boundaries the totality of the historic Armenian provinces of Siwnikʿ, Arcʿax, Utikʿ, Pʿaytakaran, and Persarmenia and also the eastern countries of Ararat, Gugarkʿ, and Vaspurakan. According to the new administrative division, these provinces were under the authority of the beglerbegs of Čʿuxur-Sad, Qarabāḡ, and Azerbaijan».
  212. Bournoutian, 1997, pp. 81—82: «For the next eight decades Eastern Armenia remained under the control of the Safavids, who divided it into two administrative units: Chukhur-i Sa'ad, or the territory of Erevan and Nakhichevan; and Karabagh, formed from the combined regions of Karabagh, Zangezur (Siunik) and Ganja. Chukhur-i Sa'ad was composed of sections from the historic Armenian provinces of Ayrarat, Gugark, and Vaspurakan. Karabagh contained the ancient provinces of Artsakh and Siunik, while Ganja or Gandzak represented the historic Armenian province of Utik.».
  213. Payaslian, 2008, p. 107: «… the Safavids established the two provinces of Chukhur-i Sa’d, encompassing Erevan and Nakhijevan, and Karabagh, which included Zangezur (Siunik) and Ganja. Each region was placed under a governor-general (beglarbegi).».
  214. Bournoutian, 2003, p. 211.
  215. Walker, 2004, p. 94: «Following the destruction of the Akkoyunlu by the Safavids, the new rulers of Persia (against whom the melikdoms appear to have been established) confirmed the meliks in their power and privileges. The whole of eastern Armenia came under the dominion of Persia, where it remained (apart from brief incursions by the Ottomans) until the Russian conquests of the early nineteenth century.».
  216. Walker, 2004, p. 94.
  217. Michael P. Croissant, 1998, pp. 9, 11: «
    P. 9: At the time, much of the focus was on the heartland of Turkish Armenia, but two regions in Transcaucasian Armenia also stirred significant irredentist feelings: Nagorno-Karabakh and Nakhichevan—both of which were attached to Azerbaijan under the imperial Russian system of administration.
    P. 11: Importantly, disunion amongst the five princes allowed the establishment of a foothold in mountainous Karabakh by a Turkic tribe around 1750. This event marked the first time that Turks were able to penetrate the eastern Armenian highlands…».
  218. Minahan, 2002: «After repeated rebellions, independence, and reconquest, the last of the Armenian kingdom was conquered by the Arab Mamelukes in 1375. The only reamaining autonomous pockets of Armenian were in Karabakh and Zangezour, both in eastern Armenia».
  219. Bournoutian, 1980, pp. 1—2.
  220. Худобашев, 1859, с. 25—27.
  221. Григорян, 1959, с. 11—12.
  222. Смирин, 1958, с. Глава XXIII. Народы Кавказа и Средней Азии в XVI и первой половине XVII в.: «В XVI—XVII вв. количество кочевников здесь даже увеличилось благодаря политике завоевателей, переселявших сюда кочевников — курдов и туркмен с целью разъединить и ослабить местное оседлое население.».
  223. Hovannisian, 1967, p. 10.
  224. von Haxthausen, 1854, p. 252: «Since the eighteenth century this fine country has lain in a state of decay, a circumstance in part attributable perhaps to the present mixed state of the inhabitants who have succeeded the Armenians that were carried away prisoners. The Tatars and Koords, who have been brought hither and settled, now form half the population.».
  225. Bournoutian, 1997, p. 96: «By the end of the eighteenth century, the Armenian population of the territory had shrunk considerably. Centuries of warfare and invasions combined with the tyranny of local khans had forced the emigration of the Armenians. It is probable that until the seventeenth century, the Armenian still maintained a majority in Eastern Armenia, but the forced relocation of some 250,000 Armenian by Shah Abbas and the numerous exoduses described in this chapter had reduced the Armenian population considerably. The census conducted by the Russians in 1830-1831 indicates that by the nineteenth century Armenians of Erevan and Nakhichevan formed 20 percent of population. The Armenians of Ganja had also been reduced to a minority. Only in the mountains regions of Karabakh and Zangezur did the Armenian manage to maintain a solid majority».
  226. Bournoutian, 1994, pp. 44—45: «The Russian conquest of eastern Armenia following the Russo-Persian Wars of 1804-1813 and 1826-1828 allowed the Armenians a chance to advance.
    In 1639, the Iranians and Ottomans ended their long period of hostility and partitioned Armenia. Two-thirds of historic Armenia became known as Western or Turkish Armenia, while the remaining one-third became Eastern or Persian Armenia. The division lasted for over two centuries, until Russia conqured eastern Armenia and made it Russian Armenia».
  227. Herzig, 2002, p. 76: «In 1828 the Russian Empire gained Eastern (Persian) Armenia by the Treaty of Turkmanchai».
  228. Hacikyan and others, 2000, p. 10: «Thus almost all of Eastern Armenia became part of Russia, with the Arax river marking the boundary …».
  229. Шнирельман, 2003, с. 45: «… в Восточную Армению, оказавшуюся после русско-иранских войн начала XIX века в составе Российской империи».
  230. Bournoutian, 1994, p. 45: «The situation of the Armenians in Russia was better. The Russia conquest of eastern Armenia folowing the Russo-Persian war of 1804-1813 and 1826-1828 allowed the armenians a chance to advance».
  231. Mokyr, 2003, p. 157: «During the periods from 1804 to 1813 and from 1813 to 1828, the Russian-Persian wars led to eastern Armenia's incorporation into Russian Empire».
  232. Bournoutian, 1980, p. 2: «.. Armenia was the last territory to be conquered by the Russians during the Russo-Persian Wars of 1804-1813 and 1826-1828. Immediately following the Treaty of Torkmanchay (1828), the Russians began to set up their administrative ap- paratus in the region».
  233. Payaslian, 2008, p. 111: «The Treaty of Turkmenchay (a village between Tabriz and Tehran), signed in February 1828, granted the khanates of Erevan and Nakhichevan to Russia, therebyestablishing Russian control over all of Eastern Armenia with the new boundary set at the Arax River.».
  234. Mokyr, 2003, p. 157: «During the periods from 1804 to 1813 and from 1813 to 1828, the Russian-Persian wars led to eastern Armenia's incorporation into the Russian Empire.».
  235. Adalian, 2010, p. xlvi: «Eastern Armenia brought under Russian control. Iran relinquishes sovereignty over historic East Armenia. Nerses Ashtaraketsi encourages Armenians from Iran to return to Armenia.».
  236. Hovannisian, 1967, p. 11.
  237. Hovannisian, 1971, p. 35.

Литература

Книги

На русском языке

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На английском языке

  • George A. Bournoutian. From the Kur to the Aras. A Military History of Russia’s Move into the South Caucasus and the First Russo-Iranian War, 1801—1813. — Brill, 2021. — 318 p. — (Iran Studies, Vol. 22). — ISBN 978-90-04-44516-1. — ISBN 978-90-04-44515-4.
  • George A. Bournoutian. A Concise History of the Armenian People: (from Ancient Times to the Present) (англ.). — 2. — Mazda Publishers, 2003. — ISBN 978-1568591414.
  • George A. Bournoutian. Armenia and Imperial Decline. The Yerevan Province, 1900–1914. — Routledge, 2018. — 412 p. — ISBN 9781351062626.
  • Hovannisian R. G. The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times. — Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 1997. — Vol. I. The Dynastic Periods: From Antiquity to the Fourteenth Century. — 386 p. — ISBN 0-312-10169-4, ISBN 978-0-312-10169-5.
    • Robert H. Hewsen. The geography of Armenia // The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times / Richard G. Hovannisian. — NY: Palgrave Macmillan, 1997. — P. 1—18. — 386 p. — ISBN 0-312-10169-4. — ISBN 978-0-312-10169-5.
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  • The Iranian world // The Cambridge History of Iran. Vol. 5. The saljuq and mongol periods / William Bayne Fisher, J. A. Boyle, John Andrew Boyle, Ilya Gershevitch, Ehsan Yarshater, Richard Nelson Frye. — NY: Cambridge University Press, 1968. — 778 p. — ISBN 9780521069366.
  • Ronald Grigor Suny. Looking toward Ararat: Armenia in modern history. — Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1993. — 289 p. — ISBN 0253207738.
  • Ronald Grigor Suny. Transcaucasia, nationalism and social change: essays in the history of Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia. — 2. — University of Michigan Press, 1996. — 543 p. — ISBN 9780472096176.
  • Mark Malkasian. "Gha-ra-bagh!": The Emergence of the National Democratic Movement in Armenia. — Detroit, Mich.: Wayne State University Press, 1996. — 236 p. — ISBN 0814326048.
  • James Barry. Armenian Christians in Iran: Ethnicity, Religion, and Identity in the Islamic Republic. — Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019. — 322 p. — ISBN 9781108429047.
  • Houri Berberian. Armenians And The Iranian Constitutional Revolution Of 1905-1911: The Love For Freedom Has No Fatherland. — NY: Routledge, 2001. — 248 p. — ISBN 9780429981845.
  • Percy Sykes. A history of Persia, 3rd edition. — NY: Barnes & Noble, 1969. — Vol. 2. — 616 p.
  • Gabriel Basmajian, Edward S. Franchuk, Nourhan Ouzounian. The Heritage of Armenian Literature: From the eighteenth century to modern times / Agop Jack Hacikyan. — Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 2000. — Vol. 3. — 1072 p. — ISBN 9780814332214.
  • Leonard F. Wise, E. W. Egan. Kings, Rulers, and Statesmen / Ph.D. Mark Hillary Hansen. — NY: Sterling Publishing Company, 2005. — 318 p. — ISBN 9781402725920.
  • Charlotte Mathilde Louise Hille. State Building and Conflict Resolution in the Caucasus. — Brill, 2010. — 359 p. — ISBN 9789004179011.
  • Mikaberidze, Alexander. Historical Dictionary of Georgia. — 2. — Rowman & Littlefield, 2015. — ISBN 978-1442241466.
  • Sir John Malcolm. The History of Persia from the Earliest Period to the Present Time. — London: Murray, 1829. — 611 p.
  • Michael P. Croissant. The Armenia-Azerbaijan Conflict: Causes and Implications. — USA: Greenwood Publishing Group, 1998. — 172 p. — ISBN 978-0275962418.
  • Joseph R. Masih, Robert O. Krikorian. Armenia At the Crossroads (англ.). — Amsterdam: Harwood Academic Publishers, 1999. — 142 p. — ISBN 9789057023446.
  • Timothy C. Dowling. Volume I. A-M // Russia at War: From the Mongol Conquest to Afghanistan, Chechnya, and Beyond. — Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, 2015. — 1077 p. — ISBN 1598849484.
  • Фаррох К. Iran at War: 1500—1988 (англ.). — Oxford: Osprey Publ., 2011. — 480 p. — ISBN 978-1-78096-240-5.
  • Armenia // A Political Chronology of the Middle East / David Lea, Annamarie Rowe, Dr. Isabel Miller. — First edition. — UK: Psychology Press, 2001. — P. 1—7. — 282 p. — ISBN 9781857431155.
  • Michael A. Reynolds. Shattering Empires. The Clash and Collapse of the Ottoman and Russian Empires, 1908–1918 (англ.). — Cambridge University Press, 2011. — ISBN 978-0-521-14916-7.
  • Andrew C. S. Peacock. Early Seljūq History: A New Interpretation // Routledge Studies in the History of Iran and Turkey. — London: Routledge, 2010. — Vol. 7. — 190 p.
  • Armenian Merchants of the Seventeenth and Early Eighteenth Centuries: English East India Company Sources / Vahé Baladouni, Margaret Makepeace. — Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1998. — 293 p. — ISBN 9780871698858.
  • Massoume Price. Iran's Diverse Peoples: A Reference Sourcebook. — ABC-CLIO, 2005. — 376 p. — ISBN 9781576079935.
  • William Blackwood and sons. Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine. — London: W. Blackwood & Sons, 1849. — Vol. 65. — 782 p.
  • Gabriel Basmajian, Edward S. Franchuk, Nourhan Ouzounian. The Heritage of Armenian Literature: From the eighteenth century to modern times / Agop Jack Hacikyan. — Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 2000. — Vol. 3. — 1072 p. — ISBN 9780814332214.
  • Rudolph P. Matthee, David Morgan. The Politics of Trade in Safavid Iran: Silk for Silver, 1600-1730. — Cambridge University Press, 1999. — 290 p. — (Cambridge Studies in Islamic Civilization). — ISBN 9780521641319.
  • Ch. Carter, Y. L. Arbeitman. [Carter, Arbeitman The Asia Minor Connexion: Studies on the Pre-Greek Languages in Memory of Charles Carter] / Y. L. Arbeitman. — Peeters Publishers, 2000. — 243 p. — ISBN 9789042907980.
  • The English Cyclopaedia: Geography / Charles Knight. — London: Bradbury, Evans, 1866. — Vol. II.
  • Huberta von Voss-Wittig. Portraits of Hope: Armenians in the Contemporary World. — Berghahn Books, 2007. — 340 p. — ISBN 9781845452575.
  • Heinz Ohme. Das Concilium Quinisextum und seine Bischofsliste. — Walter de Gruyter, 1990. — 423 p. — ISBN 9783110124323.
  • Roderick Beaton, David Ricks. Digenēs Akritēs: new approaches to Byzantine heroic poetry. — Variorum, 1993. — 196 p. — ISBN 9780860783954.
  • Armenia // A Dictionary of World History / Anne Kerr, Thomas Edmund Farnsworth Wright, Edmund Wright. — Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2015. — С. 35—36. — 712 p. — ISBN 9780199685691.
  • Bayarsaikhan Dashdondog. The Mongols and the Armenians (1220-1335) / Michael R. Drompp, Devin DeWeese. — Leiden, Boston: Brill, 2011. — 270 p. — (Brill's Inner Asian Library, Volume: 24). — ISBN 978 90 04 18635 4.
  • Robert H. Hewsen. The Geography of Ananias of Sirak (ASXARHACOYC). — Reichert, 1992. — 501 p.
  • Robert H. Hewsen. Armenia: A Historical Atlas. — University of Chicago Press, 2001. — 332 p.
  • Cyril Leo Toumanoff. Studies in Christian Caucasian History. — Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 1963. — 599 p.
  • Team of authors. The Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge (GB). — London: Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans, 1844. — Vol. III.
  • Christopher J. Walker. The armenian presence in mountainos Karabakh // Transcaucasian Boundaries / John F. R. Wright, Richard Schofield, Suzanne Goldenberg. — UCL Press, 1996. — 248 p. — ISBN 9781857282351.
  • Rouben Paul Adalian. Historical Dictionary of Armenia. — Scarecrow Press, 2010. — 674 p. — ISBN 9780810874503.
  • Mark Levene. Devastation. — OUP Oxford, 2013. — Vol. I: The European Rimlands 1912-1938. — 576 p. — ISBN 9780199683031.

На немецком языке

  • [англ.]. Eranshahr. — Berlin: Weidmannsche buchhandlung, 1901. — Bd. III.

Статьи

На русском языке

  • Н. Г. Волкова. Этнические процессы в Закавказье в XIX—XX вв. // Кавказский этнографический сборник / В. К. Гарданов. — М., 1969. — № Вып. IV. — С. 3—54.
  • А. П. Новосельцев. К вопросу о политической границе Армении и Кавказской Албании в античный период // Кавказ и Византия. — 1979. — Вып. 1. — С. 10—18.
  • С. В. Юшков. К вопросу о границах древней Албании // Исторические записки. — 1937. — С. 129—148.
  • Б. А. Дорн. Каспий. О походах древних русских в Табаристан // Записки Академии Наук. — 1875. — Т. XXVI, приложение 1.
  • А. О. Яновский. О древней Кавказской Албании // Журнал Министрерства народного просвещения. — 1846. — Вып. ч. 52. — С. 97.
  • Петросян Е. С. Роль Сисанидского Ирана в формировании картины мира восточных армян в IV—V вв // Древний мир: История и археология. Труды Международной научной конференции «Дьяковские чтения» кафедры истории древнего мира и средних веков им. проф. В. Ф. Семёнова МПГУ (3 декабря 2016 г.) / Н. И. Винокуров, Ю. В. Куликова, А. В. горохова. — М.: МПГУ, 2017. — С. 52—57.

На английском языке

  • Dr. Edmund Herzig. Armenia (en.) // Eastern Europe, Russia and Central Asia. 3rd edition. — UK: Taylor & Francis, 2002. — P. 73—99. — ISBN 1470-5702.
  • George A. Bournoutian. The Population of Persian Armenia Prior to and Immediately Following its Annexation to the Russian Empire, 1826-32 (en.) // NATIONALISM AND SOCIAL CHANGE IN TRANSCAUCASIN. — 1980. — 25 апреля.
  • George A. Bournoutian. The Politics of Demography: Misuse of Sources on the Armenian Population of Mountainous Karabakh (en.) // Journal of the Society for Armenian Studies 9. — New York, 1999.
  • Richard G. Hovannisian. Russian Armenia. A Century of Tsarist Rule (en.) // Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas. — 1971. — Март. — P. 31—48. — JSTOR 41044266.
  • Knarik Avakian. The Early History of Armenian Emigration to the USA: Evidence from the Archives of the Armenian Patriarchate of Constantinople (en.) // Journal of the Society for Armenian Studies. — University of Michigan, 2008. — Vol. 17. — P. 97—126.
  • Levon Vartanesyan. An Armenian Signet Ring from Afion Karahissar (en.) // Journal of the Society for Armenian Studies. — University of Michigan, 2008. — Vol. 17. — P. 207—210.
  • U.S. Congress. House. Committee on Banking, Finance, and Urban Affairs. Subcommittee on Economic Stabilization. The land of Karabagh: geography & history prior to 1920 (en.) // Eastern Europe: Exchange Opportunities : Hearings Before the Subcommittee on Economic Stabilization of the Committee on Banking, Finance and Urban Affairs, House of Representatives. — Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1990. — 14-15 febrary (вып. One Hundred First Congress, Second Session). — P. 274—275.
  • Nina Garsoian. Armano-Iranian Relations in Pre-Islamic Period (en.) // Iran Chamber Society. — 2004.
  • Robert H. Hewsen. The Kingdom of Arc'ax (Artsakh) (en.) // Medieval Armenian Culture (University of Pennsylvania Armenian Texts and Studies) / Thomas J. Samuelian, Michael E. Stone. — Scholars Press, 1984. — P. 42—68.

Энциклопедии

  • Encyclopedia Iranica. Armenian and Iran II. The pre-Islamic period // Encyclopedia Iranica.
  • Encyclopedia Iranica. Armenian and Iran IV. Iranian influences in Armenian Language // Encyclopedia Iranica.
  • Encyclopædia Iranica. Armenian and Iran VI. Armeno-Iranian relations in the Islamic period // Encyclopædia Iranica.
  • Encyclopedia Iranica. Ayrarat // Encyclopedia Iranica.
  • Encyclopedia Britannica. History of Transcaucasia / Russian penetration // Encyclopedia Britannica.
  • Encyclopedia Britannica. History of Transcaucasia / Armenia // Encyclopedia Britannica.
  • Encyclopedia Britannica. Ejmiatsin // Encyclopedia Britannica.
  • Armenia // The Oxford Encyclopedia of Economic History. / Joel Mokyr. — NY: Oxford University Press, 2003. — Vol. 5. — 2824 p. — ISBN 9780195105070.
  • Arminiya // The encyclopedia of Islam / H. A. R. Gibb, J. H. Kramers, E. Levi-Provençal, J. Schacht, B. Lewis, Ch. Pellat. Assisted by S. M. Stern (pp. 1—330), C. Dumont and R. M. Savory (pp. 321—1359). — Leiden, Netherlands: E.J. Brill, 1986. — Vol. I. A-B. — P. 634—650. — 1359 p. — ISBN 90-04-08114-3.
  • J. Denis Derbyshire, Lan Derbyshire. Encyclopedia of World Political Systems. — NY: Routledge, 2016. — Vol. 1. — 957 p. — ISBN 9781317471561.
  • Armenians // Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East / Jamie Stokes. — NY: Facts on File, 2009. — P. 52—66. — 880 p. — ISBN 9781438126760.
  • Vol. I. A-I // Encyclopaedic Ethnography of Middle-East and Central Asia / R. Khanam. — New Delhi: Global Vision Publishing House, 2005. — 318 p. — ISBN 8182200628. — ISBN 9788182200623.
  • James Minahan. Vol. IV: S-Z // Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations: Ethnic and National Groups Around the World. — Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press, 2002. — 2241 p. — ISBN 9780313316173.
  • Encyclopedia of the Developing World / Thomas M. Leonard. — Taylor & Francis, 2006. — Vol. 1. — 1759 p. — ISBN 9780415976626.
  • August Pauly, Georg Wissowa, Wilhelm Kroll, Kurt Witte, Karl Mittelhaus, Konrat Ziegler. Band I, Halbbände 1—2, Aal—Apollokrates // Paulys Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft.. — Stuttgart: J. B. Metzler, 1894. — P. 1303.
  • Албания // Энциклопедический словарь Брокгауза и Ефрона : в 86 т. (82 т. и 4 доп.). — СПб., 1890—1907.

Ссылки

  • Восточная Армения
  • Армения во второй половине XVII—XVIII вв. Внутренняя история Армении Архивная копия от 5 февраля 2008 на Wayback Machine
  • Освобождение Восточной Армении от ханского ига

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Vostochnoj Armenii V Vostochnoj Armenii nahodilas chast Anijskogo carstva Syunik pozdnee Syunikskoe carstvo Gugark pozdnee Tashir Dzoragetskoe carstvo i Hachen v Nagornom Karabahe Pervye nabegi oguz turkmenskih plemyon nahlynuvshih iz Srednej Azii i utverdivshihsya v Persii i drugih chastyah Perednej Azii v Armeniyu byli zafiksirovany v samom nachale XI veka kogda byli atakovany Vaspurakanskoe i Anijskoe carstva K 1070 m godam Bitva pri Mancikerte seldzhuki rasprostranili svoyo vliyanie prakticheski na vsyu Armeniyu i bolshuyu chast Anatolii vynuzhdaya tysyachi armyan migrirovat v chastnosti v Iranskij Azerbajdzhan Armyanskoe nacionalno gosudarstvennoe ustrojstvo prodolzhalo sushestvovat tolko v Syunike Syunikskoe carstvo Tashire Lori Hachene v Nagornom Karabahe i Sasune Eti vtorzheniya byli ne prosto voennymi zavoevaniyami vmeste s armiyami peremeshalis celye kochevye tyurkoyazychnye plemena migraciya kotoryh v Armeniyu k XVI veku privela k katastroficheskim izmeneniyam v etnicheskoj strukture naseleniya regiona oni obosnovalis v severo zapadnyh rajonah Persii Azerbajdzhane istoricheskoj oblasti k yugu ot reki Araks i Armenii Mnogochislennye kochevye plemena na protyazhenii celogo ryada vekov peremeshalis na territoriyu Armenii i selilis v bogatyh rajonah s obshirnymi pastbishami V 1236 godu nachalis nabegi mongolov vo glave s Chingishanom K 1245 godu mongoly smogli podchinit sebe znachitelnuyu territoriyu Armenii Mongolskie zavoevaniya byli razrushitelnymi dlya armyanskogo naseleniya mnozhestvo gorodov bylo razoreno osushestvlyalis massovye ubijstva Proishodila migraciya mongolskih plemyon na territoriyu Armenii chto eshyo bolshe usililo demograficheskie izmeneniya nachavshiesya pri seldzhukah a armyanskoe naselenie regiona prodolzhalo sokrashatsya Naselenie podvergalos nespravedlivomu nalogooblozheniyu i tolko Armyanskoj cerkvi predostavlyalis opredelyonnye privilegii V period Vizantijsko seldzhukskih vojn armyane sostavlyayushie na tot moment bolshinstvo naseleniya Vostochnoj Armenii sohranyali svoyo gosudarstvennoe ustrojstvo i svoyu hristianskuyu veru V 1385 godu han Tohtamysh uvodit v plen iz Arcaha Syunika i Parskaajka desyatki tysyach armyan a s 1386 goda i do nachala XV veka Armeniya podvergaetsya razrushitelnym pohodam Tamerlana bylo unichtozheno ogromnoe chislo lyudej a chast byla plenena Ego vojska doshli do Syunika Nahichevani i dalee dvinulis v napravlenii Erzerumskogo V etot period zemli i pastbisha otnimalis u mestnogo armyanskogo naseleniya razoryalis celye goroda v chastnosti byl razgrablen gorod Van proishodilo massovoe zaselenie territorii Armenii prishlymi tyurkskimi kochevnikami a islam stanovilsya dominiruyushej religiej Chislo armyanskogo naseleniya umenshalos Avtor XIX veka Abbas Bakihanov tak opisyval etot period Emir Tejmur Tamerlan pereselil 50 tysyach semejstv kadzharov v Kavkazskij kraj i poselil ih v Erivane Gandzhe i Karabage gde oni v techenie vremeni eshe bolee umnozhilis Mnogie iz etih kadzharov pri sefevidskih shahah byli gosudarstvennymi deyatelyami i upravlyali Armenieyu i Shirvanom Eto ot nih proizoshli erivanskie i gandzhinskie hany V techenie XV veka chasti territorij Armenii i Persii vhodili v sostav gosudarstv sozdannyh prishlymi tyurkskimi kochevymi plemenami Kara Koyunlu i Ak Koyunlu vedushimi mezhdousobnye vojny Armyanskoe naselenie uvodilos v plen a posle stoletij sistematicheskih vojn mezhdu potomkami Tamerlana Shah Ruh i pravitelyami Kara Koyunlu Kara Yusuf ego synovya Iskandar han i Dzhahanshah na armyanskom nagore kotorye razorili territoriyu Armenii mnogie armyane byli vynuzhdeny massovo emigrirovat V etot period proishodil process vytesneniya armyanskogo naseleniya prishlymi tyurkskimi kochevnikami territoriya Armenii opustoshalas Znachitelnoe chislo armyan stalo iskat zashity so storony Russkih knyazhestv i v dalnejshem u obrazovannogo Russkogo gosudarstva Tolko iz Syunika byli nasilstvenno pereseleny v rajon Lori okolo 6000 domov Vostochnaya Armeniya na karte Persidskoj imperii Dzhon Pinkerton 1818 god Nevziraya na inostrannoe gospodstvo usiliyami armyanskih miryan i duhovnyh liderov pravitel gosudarstva Kara Koyunlu Dzhahanshah han s celyu privlecheniya na svoyu storonu armyanskogo naseleniya v borbe protiv sopernichayushih klanov naznachil ryad armyanskih nahararov knyazej v oblastyah Syunik vklyuchaya Vajoc Dzor Arcah i Gugark A s celyu privlecheniya simpatij duhovenstva on soglasilsya sodejstvovat v vosstanovlenii cerkvej i pereneseniyu prestola v Vagarshapat Echmiadzin Dzhahanshah rasporyadilsya takzhe osvobodit ot gosudarstvennyh nalogov Tatevskij i drugie monastyri V 1441 godu centralnyj organ Armyanskoj Apostolskoj cerkvi prestol Verhovnogo patriarha i Katolikosa vseh armyan byl perenesyon iz Kilikii gde on nahodilsya s 1149 goda v Echmiadzinskij monastyr eyo drevnejshij istoricheskij centr na territorii Armenii a Armyanskuyu cerkov priznavali praviteli musulmanskih stran regiona Odnako vse eti pozitivnye mery ne pomeshali emu pri ocherednom pohodu plenit okolo 1500 armyan v rajone Musha Bitlisa i Ahlata Postoyannye vojny i opustoshitelnye nabegi razorili territoriyu Armenii a armyanskoe naselenie podvergalos grabezhu i uvodu v rabstvo uvodili v tom chisle i mladencev Ogromnoe chislo armyan postepenno pokidalo svoyu rodnuyu zemlyu i immigrirovalo Musulmanskie praviteli Armenii pytalis assimilirovat armyanskoe naselenie putyom ego otkaza ot hristianstva i prinyatiya islama Hristiane dolzhny byli nosit razlichnye metki dlya svoej identifikacii Mnogochislennye vojny tyurkskih plemyon velis v osnovnom za schyot uplaty ogromnyh nalogov vzimaemyh s armyanskogo naseleniya na podkontrolnyh territoriyah S samogo nachala XVI veka ogromnyj usherb Armenii nanesli nepreryvnye Turecko persidskie vojny kotorye velis za kontrol v tom chisle i nad eyo territoriej V etot period obeimi armiyami opustoshalis ogromnye territorii Armenii vynuzhdaya armyanskoe naselenie migrirovat chto v itoge privodilo k seryoznomu sokrasheniyu ego chislennosti na territoriyah istoricheskoj Armenii Naprimer vo vremya Turecko persidskoj vojna 1514 1555 persidskij Shah Ismail I pribegnul k taktike razrusheniya dereven chtoby ostanovit nastupayushie osmanskie vojska chem vynudil tysyachi armyan pokinut svoi doma V 1555 godu byl podpisan Mir v Amase mirnyj dogovor mezhdu Sefevidami i Osmanskoj imperiej razdelivshij Zakavkaze i Armeniyu mezhdu derzhavami turki sohranili kontrol nad gorodami i blizhajshimi rajonami Mosul Marash Van Alashkert Bayazet i Zapadnoj Gruzii Sefevidy Shirvan i Tebriz V hode vojny silno postradalo mestnoe armyanskoe naselenie Osmanskoe gospodstvo nad chastyu Vostochnoj Armeniej prodolzhalos v techenie chut bolee 15 let i bylo ustanovleno v rezultate Turecko persidskoj vojny 1578 1590 Soglasno usloviyam Stambulskogo mirnogo dogovora 1590 Persiya otkazyvalas ot Tebriza Shirvana i ostalnoj chasti Gruzii Za gody osmanskogo kontrolya territorii Vostochnoj Armenii i vsego Zakavkazya 1578 1607 tureckie vlasti podvergali armyanskoe naselenie postoyannym grabezham i pritesneniyam Deportacii armyanskogo naseleniya kotoroj podverglis tysyachi chelovek proishodili v Tebrize Vane Karabahe i Nahichevani Vmesto armyan osmanskie vlasti massovo zaselyali eti territorii vklyuchaya Syunik i Araratskuyu dolinu prishlymi kurdami Odnako v 1603 godu vospolzovavshis anarhiej caryashej na territorii Vostochnoj Anatolii i Armenii shah Persii Abbas I nachal novuyu Turecko persidskuyu vojnu Po ego prikazu sefevidskaya armiya osushestvlyala taktiku vyzhzhennoj zemli protiv osmanov v Araratskoj doline razoryaya i unichtozhaya armyanskie goroda i syola chto by oni ne mogli dostatsya turkam Po ego prikazu iz Vostochnoj Armenii na territoriyu Persii byli vyseleny ot 250 tys do 350 tys armyan Tolko iz odnogo goroda Dzhulfa Dzhuga i ego okrestnyh selenij bylo deportirovano 12 000 armyanskih semej Na mesta prozhivaniya izgnannyh armyan selilis kochevye kurdy i tyurkskie plemena Persiya vernula sebe vsyu territoriyu utrachennuyu po rezultatam predydushej vojny Kak otmechaet Enciklopediya Iranika Na protyazhenii svoej mnogovekovoj istorii armyanskij narod eshyo ne podvergalsya stol seryoznoj katastrofe V rajone goroda Isfahan pereselency osnovali rajon Novaya dzhulfa gde vposledstvii sozdali krupnyj centr mezhdunarodnoj torgovli v tom chisle i s Rossiej Novoe vremya Sm takzhe Vostochnaya Armeniya v sostave Rossijskoj imperii i Armyane v Rossii Granicy Sefevidskoj i Osmanskoj imperij soglasno usloviyam Zuhabskogo mira 1639Rossijskaya Armeniya karta 1828 goda Na protyazhenii neskolkih stoletij Osmanskaya i Sefevidskaya imperii veli postoyannye vojny za kontrol territorii Zakavkazya i Kavkaza vklyuchaya territoriyu Armenii Eti sobytiya stali prichinoj eshyo bolee krupnyh voln migracii armyan s ee territorii a takzhe razoreniem i obezlyudivaniem territorii Armenii i poseleniem kochevyh kurdov i tyurok na ostavlennye armyanami zemli Protivostoyanie dvuh gosudarstv zavershilos Zuhabskim mirnym dogovorom 1639 soglasno kotoromu byla ustanovlena novaya granica Proizoshlo eshyo odno razdelenie Armenii Nachalo novoj granicy bylo polozheno v rajone Dzhavahskogo hrebta dalee sleduet po reke Ahuryan granica prohodila po hrebtu Armyanskih gor zapadnym skolam Bolshogo Ararata soedinyayas s gornoj sistemoj Zagros Zapadnee novoj granicy okazalis territorii Zapadnoj 2 3 istoricheskoj Armenii vostochnee Vostochnoj Persidskoj Armenii 1 3 Vostochnaya Armeniya v sostave Sefevidskoj Persii byla podelena na dve administrativnye edinicy Chuhur Saad vklyuchala istoricheskie armyanskie provincii Ajrarat Gugark Vaspurakan i Parskaajk i Karabahskoe beglerbegstvo chastichno a imenno provincii Arcah Syunik Zangezur Utik i Pajtakaran Nekotorye krupnye goroda Vostochnoj Armenii raspolozhennye na peresechenii vazhnejshih torgovyh putej iz Azii v Evropu i naoborot na protyazhenii mnogih vekov sluzhili perevalochnymi bazami i mestami hraneniya tovarov iz Persii Indii i Kitaya Cherez etu territoriyu shli torgovye puti na rynki Rossii Osmanskoj imperii i Zapadnoj Evropy S konca XVIII i do vhozhdenie v sostav Rossii XIX v chetyre hanstva v sostave Persii sostavlyali territoriyu Vostochnoj Armenii Erivanskoe Nahichevanskoe vklyuchaya ryad poselenij k yugu ot reki Araks Karabahskoe vklyuchaya Zangezur i Gyadnzhinskoe Pereselenie kochevyh plemyon na bogatye zemli vdol rek Armyanskogo nagorya proishodivshee v techenie celogo ryada vekov obratilo vspyat istoricheskoe preobladanie armyanskogo naseleniya V svyazi s postoyannoj migraciej musulmanskogo naseleniya na territoriyu Vostochnoj Armenii nasilstvennoj deportaciej armyan provedyonnoj shahom Abbasom i postoyannym razoritelnym nabegam i vojnam k nachalu XIX veka edva li tret eyo naseleniya byli armyanami armyane sohranili znachitelnoe bolshinstvo lish v gornyh rajonah Karabaha i Syunika vklyuchaya Zangezur Na territorii sovremennoj Gyandzhi armyane takzhe stali menshinstvom S nachala XIX veka territorii Vostochnoj Armenii poetapno vhodili v sostav Rossijskoj imperii v rezultate Russko persidskih 1804 1813 i 1826 1828 i russko tureckoj 1828 1829 vojn soglasno usloviyam Gyulistanskogo Turkmanchajskogo i Andrianopolskogo mirnyh dogovorov K nachalu XX veka territoriya Vostochnoj Armenii vklyuchala v sebya Erivanskuyu i chastichno Tiflisskuyu i Elisavetpolskuyu gubernii Vostochnaya Armeniya nahodilas v sostave Rossijskoj imperii vplot do raspada poslednej v 1917 godu sm Vostochnaya Armeniya v sostave Rossijskoj imperii Sm takzheVostochnaya Armeniya v sostave Rossijskoj imperii Zapadnaya Armeniya Armeniya istoricheskij region Istoriya Armenii Hronologiya istorii Armenii Hronologiya armyanskoj gosudarstvennosti Istoricheskie migracii armyanskogo naseleniyaPrimechaniyaKommentarii Soglasno dogovoru Osmanskaya imperiya priznavala perehod k Rossii Erivanskogo i Nahichevanskogo hanstv peredannyh godom ranee Persiej po Turkmanchajskomu dogovoru Istochniki Suny 1996 p 69 Eastern Armenia thereafter known as Russian or Transcaucasian Armenia Volkova 1969 s 23 Vostochnaya Armeniya Araratskaya dolina s prilegayushimi k nej gornymi oblastyami Malogo Kavkaza Lori Idzhevan Zangezur i dr byla centrom formirovaniya armyanskoj nacii Matthee Morgan 1999 p 23 Their activity centered on various towns in eastern Armenia of which Julfa was the most prominent Bournoutian 1982 p 53 Eastern Armenia a segment of the Armenian plateau is located in the south western and most elevated part of Transcaucasia It is composed of a series of mountain chains surrounding the Plain of Ararat and the Arax Valley The nothern boundary follows the Pambak and Arguni chains and runs above the nothern extremity of lake Sevan Hacikyan and others 2000 pp 9 12 Bournoutian 1980 p 1 The Arpachay Soviet Akhurian River became the boundary between the two empires lands west of the river were soon known as Western or Turkish Armenia while the territories east of Arpachay assumed the title of Eastern or Persian Armenia Barry 2019 p 65 97 241 Bournoutian 1994 pp 44 45 In 1639 the Iranians and Ottomans ended their long period of hostility and partitioned Armenia Two thirds of historic Armenia became known as western or Turkish Armenia while the remaining one third became eastern or Persian Armenia The division lasted for over two centuries until Russia conquered eastern Armenia and made it Russian Armenia Novoselcev Pashuto Cherepnin 1972 s 45 Smirin 1958 s Gl XXI The encyclopedia of Islam Vol I 1986 p 640 Michael P Croissant 1998 p 9 At the time much of the focus was on the heartland of Turkish Armenia but two regions in Transcaucasian Armenia also stirred significant irredentist feelings Nagorno Karabakh and Nakhichevan both of which were attached to Azerbaijan under the imperial Russian system of administration Carter Arbeitman 2000 p 85 With the exception of the period of Arabic influence over Armenia during the Caliphate 7th 9th centuries A D this Persian power extended from the time Darius the Great until the early 19th century when the Russian Empire took over the control of Caucasian Armenia and increasingly under the Soviet period Encyclopedia Iranica Armenian and Iran II From the political viewpoint which alone is relevant here Persarmenia has the broader meaning of the whole Armenian area under Persian rule as opposed to the Roman Armenia It must not be confused with the late geographical term of Parskahaykʿ or Persarmenia a province which lay north and west of the lake Urmia and bordered on Adiabene and Atropatene Encyclopaedia Iranica Armenian and Iran IV whereas the far greater eastern part of the country the so called Great Armenia or the Persarmenia of the Byzantine historiographers Garsoian 2004 The abolition of the Arsacid monarchy followed soon thereafter in ca 390 on the Roman side and by 428 in the Sasanian portion which was soon to take the name of Persarmenia The encyclopedia of Islam Vol I 1986 p 634 Knight 1866 p 1145 The province of Nakhichevan which forms the south eastern part of Russian Armenia is divided into two districts Nakhichevan and Ordoobad Blackwood and sons 1849 p 589 Bournoutian 1997 p 106 Hovannisian 1971 p 31 Bournoutian 2018 p 20 Hewsen 1997 p 17 Bournoutian 2003 p 215 Hudobashev 1859 s 25 The encyclopedia of Islam Vol I 1986 p 643 Bournoutian 1994 p 40 In present day terms historic Armenia comprised a large parts of eastern Turkey the northeastern corner of Iran parts of the Azerbaijan and Georgian republics as well as the entire territory of the Armenian Republic It was defined by a number of natural boundaries the Kura River separating the Armenian highlands from Caspian and Georgian lowlands in the east and northeast the Taurus Zagros chains connecting to the Iranian Plateau and separating Armenia from Kurdistan and Iran in the south and southwest and Euphrates River marking and western boundary of historic Armenia Leonard 2006 p 87 Historic or Greater Armenia includes not only the Republic of Armenia but also a small area in northeastern Iran most of the eastern part of Turkey and secitions of the present republics of Azerbaijan and Georgia Encyclopedia Iranica Armenian and Iran II and a different road crossing Armenia southeast to northwest was taken by Xenophon in 401 B C He mentions the province s division into Eastern Armenia and Western Armenia separated by the Teleboas Kara su river Anabasis 4 4 3 Bournoutian 1982 p 53 Eastern Armenia a segment of the Armenian plateau is located in the southwestern and most elevated part of Transcaucasia It is composed of a series of mountain chains surrounding the Plain of Ararat and the Arax Valley The northern boundary follows the Pambak and Arguni chains and tuns above the northern extremity of Lake Sevan T Gekchay This lake is on a still higher plateau which is separated from the rest of Eastern Armenia by the Kura P Kur River the Vardenis T Gezal Dara Mountainsb y the deep ravine carved by the Arax River and by the Geghama T Aghmaghan Mountains Running perpendicular to the Pambak and extending along the borders of Lake Sevan are the Sevan T Shah Dagh Ganje and Karabagh mountain chains which eventually join the Siunik Zangezur T Daralogez chain These in turn take a southward course in the direction of the Karadagh chain and Tabriz forming the eastern boundary of the region The southern section of Eastern Armenia begins northwest of Tabriz between Zangezur and the Arax and runs to the Sharur plain Continuing to the southwest it reaches Mount Ararat in the Haykakan Par T Aghri Dagh Mountains The highlands of Shirak Shuragel and Akhaltsikh watered by the Akhurian T Arpachay form the western periphery of Eastern Armenia Gadlo 1998 Araratskaya dolina delit zemlyu armyan na dve chasti vostochnuyu i zapadnuyu Ona zhe yavlyaetsya centrom armyanskoj kultury i gosudarstvennosti Process formirovaniya armyanskoj narodnosti v osnovnom zavershilsya v VII VI vv do n e kogda na territorii Armyanskogo nagorya vozniklo pervoe armyanskoe rabovladelcheskoe gosudarstvo Gosudarstvo Ervanduni obedinivshee mestnye kavkazkoyazychnye i prishlye indoevropejskie plemena Encyclopedia Iranica Armenian and Iran II and a different road crossing Armenia southeast to northwest was taken by Xenophon in 401 B C He mentions the province s division into Eastern Armenia and Western Armenia separated by the Teleboas Kara su river Anabasis 4 4 3 Encyclopaedia Iranica Armenian and Iran IV Encyclopaedia Iranica Armenian and Iran IV Though the Christianization of Armenia in the third century and its rise to Armenian official religion shortly after 300 A D loosened the close ties between Iranians and Armenians ties that had until then been close even in matters of creed little changed in the political situation even under the Sasanians who ruled over Iran from 224 A D until the Armenian apple of discord was finally divided between Romans and Sasanians in 387 A D Western Armenia came under the rule of the Romans and later the Byzantines whereas the far greater eastern part of the country the so called Great Armenia or the Persarmenia of the Byzantine historiographers came under Persian control and was fully annexed by Bahram V Gōr some years later in 428 A D and from then governed only by Sasanian margraves Subcommittee on Economic Stabilization 1990 p 274 being found at its southeastern edge adjoining the Armenian province of Zangezur Encyclopaedia Iranica Armenian and Iran VI Meanwhile in the provinces of Arcʿax and Siwnikʿ in eastern Armenia Qarabaḡ and Zangezur Levene 2013 p 217 in formerly Russian controlled eastern Armenia as far as Nakhichevan and Zangezur Adalian 2010 p xlv in Zangezur and Kharabakh in eastern Armenia Bournoutian 1997 pp 81 82 89 P 81 82 At the start of the sixteenth century Armenia became the center of conflict between the Ottoman sultans and the Safavid shahs of Persia After continuous warfare between the two empires a compromise was finally leached by the Treaty of Zuhab in 1639 Under this agreement the Ottomans recognized almost all of Transcaucasia as being part of Persia The plain of Shuragial and the Arpachai River became a sort of boundary Armenian lands east of that zone were considered part of Persia and all lands west of it fell into the Ottoman sphere The terms Eastern or Persian Armenia and Turkish or Western Armenia were soon coined by contemporary travelers geographers and historians For the next eight decades Eastern Armenia remained under the control of the Safavids who divided it into two administrative units Chukhur i Sa ad or the territory of Erevan and Nakhichevan and Karabagh formed from the combined regions of Karabagh Zangezur Siunik and Ganja P 89 Hence by the second haf of the eighteenth century Eastern Armena was composed of four khanates Erevan Nakhichevan which included a number of settlements south of Araxes River Karabakh which included Zangezur and Ganja Petrushevskij 1949 s 62 Bolshaya chast kavkazskoj Armenii vhodila v sostav Erevanskoj ili Chuhur Sa dskoj oblasti vilajeta Ostalnaya chast Armenii Sharur Daralagez i Zangezur vmeste s chastyu severnogo Azerbajdzhana raspolozhennoj mezhdu pp Kuroj i Araksom Arran sostavlyala Karabagskuyu ili Gandzhinskuyu oblast vilajet Adalian 2010 p xlv in Zangezur and Kharabakh in eastern Armenia Shnirelman 2003 s 236 237 Avakian 2008 p 106 Bournoutian 1997 p 89 Hence by the second haf of the eighteenth century Eastern Armena was composed of four khanates Erevan Nakhichevan which included a number of settlements south of Araxes River Karabakh which included Zangezur and Ganja Kerr T Wright E Wright 2015 p 35 The Republic of Armenia comprises the north eastern part of the historic kingdom of Armenia Hacikyan and others 2000 p 9 At the close of the eighteenth century th Eastern Armenian khanates of Yerevan Nakhijevan Karabagh and Ganja were under Iranian rule Michael P Croissant 1998 pp 9 11 9 At the time much of the focus was on the heartland of Turkish Armenia but two regions in Transcaucasian Armenia also stirred significant irredentist feelings Nagorno Karabakh and Nakhichevan both of which were attached to Azerbaijan under the imperial Russian system of administration 11 Importantly disunion amongst the five princes allowed the establishment of a foothold in mountainous Karabakh by a Turkic tribe around 1750 This event marked the first time that Turks were able to penetrate the eastern Armenian highlands Bournoutian 1994 p 44 Only pockets such as Karabagh Karabakh and Zangezur in eastern Armenia and Sasun and Zeitun in western Armenia remained autonomous Minahan 2002 After repeated rebellions independence and reconquest the last of the Armenian kingdom was conquered by the Arab Mamelukes in 1375 The only reamaining autonomous pockets of Armenian were in Karabakh and Zangezour bothe in eastern Armenia Vartanesyan 2008 p 208 The history manuscript also notes the significance of the date 1620 as the yeasr eight families of skilled laborers emigrated from Karabakh Eastern Armenia to Afion Karahissar Central Turkey Subcommittee on Economic Stabilization 1990 pp 274 275 and in 1813 Russia formally occupide much of Eastern Armenia including Karabagh Petrushevskij 1949 s 62 Bolshaya chast kavkazskoj Armenii vhodila v sostav Erevanskoj ili Chuhur Sa dskoj oblasti vilajeta Ostalnaya chast Armenii Sharur Daralagez i Zangezur vmeste s chastyu severnogo Azerbajdzhana raspolozhennoj mezhdu pp Kuroj i Araksom Arran sostavlyala Karabagskuyu ili Gandzhinskuyu oblast vilajet Walker 1996 p 90 Among the longest survivors and here the mountain systems interrelate with historical detail were the princes of eastern Armenia specifically those of Siunik modern Zangezur and Nakhichevan and Artsakh sometimes known as Pokr Siunik or small Siunik modern Karabakh Siunik encompassed all of the shoreline of Lake Sevan except the northernmost part which belonged to the Ayrarat region and stretched south as far as the Hagar Akera and Vorotan rivers Artsakh encompassed the territory of the NKAO and extended as a long and slim band of territory almost as far again to the northwest beyond the River Akstafa and the southeast as far as the River Arax Subcommittee on Economic Stabilization 1990 p 274 being found at its southeastern edge adjoining the Armenian province of Zangezur Hudobashev 1859 s 23 24 Hewsen 1984 pp 43 44 43 Therefore I shall confine myself to the circumstances which surrounded and made possible the survival of autonomous enclaves in Eastern Armenia that is in Siwnik and Karabagh and in particular to what I shall call the Kingdom of Arc ax which flourished however feebly or fitfully from the eleventh through thirteenth centuries 44 As the Turks and their various Muslim vassals began to falter in the twelfth century Georgia expanded into northern and eastern Armenia capturing Ani Dvin and Kars and all of Siwnik wisely placing these regions under Armenian vassal princes and reducing to the same vassalage the rulers of Dizak and XaS en Hewsen 2001 p 119 Encyclopaedia Iranica Armenian and Iran VI However Prince Smbat of the Orbelid feudal dynasty ruling in the province of Siwnikʿ in southeastern Armenia Hewsen 1984 p 43 Therefore I shall confine myself to the circumstances which surrounded and made possible the survival of autonomous enclaves in Eastern Armenia that is in Siwnik and Karabagh and in particular to what I shall call the Kingdom of Arc ax which flourished however feebly or fitfully from the eleventh through thirteenth centuries Bayarsaikhan 2011 p 75 Iwane s sister Dop i married Hasan the prince of Arts akh in eastern Armenia receiving a large area on the southern shore of Lake Sevan and the district Sot k in Siwnik They were known as Dop ians Yanovskij 1846 s 97 Dorn 1875 s 187 Marquart 1901 p 358 Pauly Wissowa i dr 1894 Yushkov 1937 Novoselcev 1979 Strabon 1994 s XI XIV 4 V samoj Armenii mnogo gor i ploskogorij gde s trudom rastyot dazhe vinogradnaya loza mnogo tam i dolin prichyom odni iz nih ne otlichayutsya osobennym plodorodiem drugie zhe naprotiv chrezvychajno plodorodny naprimer ravnina Araksa po kotoroj reka Araks techyot do granic Albanii vpadaya v Kaspijskoe more Za etoj ravninoj idyot Sakasena tozhe granichashaya s Albaniej i s rekoj Kirom eshyo dalee idyot Gogarena Vsya eta strana polna dikimi plodami i plodami derevev vyrashennyh chelovekom i vechnozelyonymi rasteniyami zdes rastyot dazhe maslina Provinciej Armenii yavlyayutsya Favena a takzhe Komisena i Orhistena vystavlyayushaya naibolshee chislo vsadnikov Eremyan 1963 Shirakaci 1877 Plinij Starshij 77 s 28 29 39 Kassij s Kn XXXVI gl 53 4 54 1 54 4 54 5 Kn XXXVII gl 2 3 4 Buzand 1953 s Kn III gl 7 Kn V gl 13 Horenaci 1990 s Kn II gl 8 65 Plutarh I II v s Gl 34 35 Hewsen 2001 p 101 Hewsen 1992 p 266 It was surnamed Sahastan by the Armenians to distinguish it from Gandzak Ganja in eastern Armenia Bayarsaikhan 2011 p 14 From the comments he left about himself we may conclude that Vardan Arevelts i was born around 1200 in the region of Gandzak in north eastern Armenia Toumanoff 1963 p 129 The south eastern group was comprised of the provinces of Otene or Uti Arts akh Caspiane or P aytakaran and between the last two and west of them Siunia or Siunik the south western group contained the provinces of Tayk and of Upper Armenia Grincer Meletinskij i dr 1984 s 285 288 Koryun 1962 Strabon 1994 s XI XIV 5 V samoj Armenii mnogo gor i ploskogorij gde s trudom rastyot dazhe vinogradnaya loza mnogo tam i dolin prichyom odni iz nih ne otlichayutsya osobennym plodorodiem drugie zhe naprotiv chrezvychajno plodorodny naprimer ravnina Araksa po kotoroj reka Araks techyot do granic Albanii vpadaya v Kaspijskoe more Za etoj ravninoj idyot Sakasena tozhe granichashaya s Albaniej i s rekoj Kirom eshyo dalee idyot Gogarena Vsya eta strana polna dikimi plodami i plodami derevev vyrashennyh chelovekom i vechnozelyonymi rasteniyami zdes rastyot dazhe maslina Provinciej Armenii yavlyayutsya Favena a takzhe Komisena i Orhistena vystavlyayushaya naibolshee chislo vsadnikov Bournoutian 1980 p 1 Michael P Croissant 1998 p 4 Armenia s strategic position has exposed her to repeated invasion In all such clashes of empires the Armenians have found themselves between two warring camps Bournoutian 1997 p 94 von Haxthausen 1854 pp 249 251 249 the country through which passed all the armies of the East and in which more battles were fought and more blood flowed than in any other Here ne vertheless were always opulent towns destroyed per haps one day but rebuilt the next whilst the whole country uniformly wore a flourishing aspect 251 Armenia has suffered innumerable devastations by Persians Greeks Arabs Mongols and Turks Encyclopaedia Iranica Armenian and Iran VI Michael P Croissant 1998 pp 3 4 3 On countless occasions throughout history these phenomena have made the Transcaucasus the locus of competition and often battle between surrounding powers Transcaucasia first became a sustained center of imperial rivalry in the first century B C when the region became a major battleground between the Roman Empire and the Arsacid dynasty of Iran For several centuries thereafter the area and Armenia in particular continued to be an object of heated contention between Rome and successive Iranian dynasties With the passing of time the Roman presence in the Transcaucasus was replaced by Byzantium and the Iranian presence by the Arabs then in 1071 the Byzantines were defeated by the Turks at the Battle of Manzikert and Transcaucasia fell under the sway of the Seljuk Empire Following the replacement of the Seljuks by the Mongols and then the Ottomans in the thirteenth century the Transcaucasus became a locus of competition between an expansionist Ottoman Turkey and Safavid Iran by the early sixteenth century 4 Situated strategically between Europe and Asia it has attracted countless waves of human migrants and been the locus of almost continuous expansionism and competition between surrounding states Kouymjian 1997 p 2 22 Rival Islamic dynasties struggled to dominate it and in so doing to exploit its resources The structure of Armenian life was badly damaged nearly destroyed and finally changed Self rule became a dream to be fulfilled Grigoryan 1959 s 10 Smirin 1958 s Glava VIII Iran vynuzhden byl zaklyuchit s Vizantiej dogovor o druzhbe i ustupit ej chast Kartli do Tbilisi i chast Vostochnoj Armenii do ozera Van Na osvobozhdyonnoj ot persov chasti Kartli utverdilsya mestnyj knyaz V Albanii v konce VI v vozrodilas mestnaya gosudarstvennost vo glave s nasledstvennym knyazem V ostavshihsya pod vlastyu Irana chastyah Kartli i Armenii iranskoe pravitelstvo takzhe dolzhno bylo pojti na znachitelnye ustupki mestnoj znati No polozhenie krestyanstva ostavalos po prezhnemu tyazhyolym Posle pobedy Vizantii nad sasanidskim Iranom 628 g ego vladychestvo v stranah Zakavkazya fakticheski palo hotya i vlast Vizantii yavlyalas tam lish nominalnoj Rybakov Alaev Ashfaryan i dr 2002 s 30 Michael P Croissant 1998 p 10 Petrosyan 2017 s 52 53 Hewsen 1997 p 15 Mokyr 2003 p 157 Encyclopaedia Iranica Armenian and Iran IV until the Armenian apple of discord was finally divided between Romans and Sasanians in 387 A D Western Armenia came under the rule of the Romans and later the Byzantines whereas the far greater eastern part of the country the so called Great Armenia or the Persarmenia of the Byzantine historiographers came under Persian control and was fully annexed by Bahram V Gōr some years later in 428 A D and from then governed only by Sasanian margraves The Biographical Dictionary 1844 p 680 Having seized Artasires he deposed him and united his dominions with Persia A D 428 Eastern Armenia was then called Persarmenia Petrosyan 2017 s 53 Petrosyan 2017 s 54 55 Petrosyan 2017 s 55 Encyclopaedia Iranica Ayrarat After the Byzantine Persian partition of Armenia in A D 591 the emperor Maurice organized his newly acquired territories in east central Armenia into a Byzantine province which probably from its elevation relative to the rest of Armenia was designated Lower Armenia Armenia Inferior Beaton Ricks 1993 p 86 Armenian dignitaries moved to Byzantium again after the second partition of Armenia in 591 Heinz 1990 p 289 As the Byzantine frontier moved eastward after the partition of the Armenian Kingdom ca 387 and again 591 these norms were apparently extended to the newly annexed territories Hewsen 1997 p 15 Nine of these territories were lost in 387 most of them forever there others Vaspurakan Turuberan and Tayk emerged only after the Byzantine Persian partition of Armenia in 591 when the districts of which they were comprised passed under Byzantine control Voss Wittig 2007 p 314 In the partition of Armenia between Perisa and Byzantium most Armenian territory becomes a dependency of Eastern Rome Lea and others 2001 p 1 Stokes 2009 p 54 Arab raids into Armenia began in the 640s Rybakov Alaev Ashfaryan i dr 2002 s 518 Michael P Croissant 1998 pp 10 11 Grigoryan 1959 s 11 Stokes 2009 p 54 The Arab domination of the whole of Armenia was however a long and drawn out process and it was not until the end of the eighth century that it fell entirely under the control of the Umayyad Caliphate Under the rule of the Arab Abbasids substantial Arab settlement took place in Armenia Encyclopaedia Iranica Ayrarat During the almost 250 years of Arab rule in Armenia 7th 9th cents the Bagratids gradually assumed the paramount position among the surviving Armenian princes and ca 884 were able to establish a new monarchy in central Armenia which included all of Lower Armenia and considerably more territory in eastern Armenia as well Stokes 2009 p 54 Michael P Croissant 1998 p 2 many tribes settled in the area and it was incorporated wholly into the Seljuk Empire in 1071 Bournoutian 1994 p 44 Novoselcev Pashuto Cherepnin 1972 s 47 Rybakov Alaev Ashfaryan i dr 2002 s 131 Walker 1996 p 92 The Seljuk Turks invaded and conquered much of eastern Armenia in the eleventh century Walker 2004 p 92 Encyclopedia Britannica Armenia The Byzantine conquest was short lived in 1048 Toghril Beg led the first Seljuq raid into Armenia in 1064 Ani and Kars fell to Toghril s nephew and heir Alp Arslan and after the Battle of Manzikert 1071 most of the country was in Turkish hands In 1072 the Kurdish Shaddadids received Ani as a fief A few native Armenian rulers survived for a time in the Kiurikian kingdom of Lori the Siuniqian kingdom of Baghq or Kapan and the principates of Khachen Artzakh and Sasun The encyclopedia of Islam Vol I 1986 p 639 Bournoutian 2003 p 205 Price 2005 pp 70 71 In the eleventh century the Saljuq rulers of Asia Minor forced thousands of Armenians out of Armenia and into Azerbaijan Rybakov Alaev Ashfaryan i dr 2002 s 515 The Cambridge History of Iran Vol 5 1968 p 64 Alp Arslan s victory at Malazgirt also meant that apart from the districts of Tashir and eastern Siunik Armenia passes definitely into Muslim hands and within the nest decade or so the Byzantines resolutely anti Armenian to the end exterminated several survivors of the native Bagratid and Ardzrunid dynasties Peacock 2010 p 113 By the middle of the eleventh century the sole Armenian principalities that maintained some sort of independence were Siunik and Tashir in Caucasia and Sasun to the west of Lake Van Nicolle Hook 2013 p 8 Peacock 2010 p 8 By the middle of the eleventh century the sole Armenian principalities that maintained some sort of independence were Siunik and Tashir in Caucasia and Sasun to the west of Lake Van Bournoutian 1994 p 43 The Seljuk Turkish invasion differed in one significant respect from all other previous invasions of Armenia The Turkish nomads remained in Armenia settling on the land and in the mountains Stokes 2009 p 54 The Seljuk period in Armenian history brought substan tial ethnic changes There was a renewed wave of conversion to Islam among Armenians and a significant degree ofimmigration into Armenian by Turkic peoples Novoselcev Pashuto Cherepnin 1972 s 46 47 A zatem nachalos seldzhukskoe nashestvie Ono naneslo pervyj katastroficheskij udar po armyanskomu etnosu Chast Vaspurakana Gohtn i nakonec Syunik stali obektom zahvata seldzhukov v pervuyu ochered Encyclopaedia Iranica Armenian and Iran VI From the outset opposing Ottoman Turkey and unifying under the banner of Shiʿism his military forces of Turkish speaking nomads wandering in Azerbaijan and Armenia and declaring themselves as qezelbas or sahsevan Shah Esmaʿil had strong collisions with the Ottoman empire which by that time had reached the zenith of its might These conflicts continued with only brief intermissions during the time of his successors almost during the entire 10th 16th century These ruinous wars whose main arena was Armenia seemed to be of dogmatic religious nature yet in reality they had political strategic and economic reasons the chief among them being the Ottomans intention to conquer Transcaucasia Dagestan Daḡestan and Azerbaijan and to control the trade routes through Armenia and Azerbaijan and the main centers of silk production Price 2005 p 71 Michael P Croissant 1998 p 2 The next major wave of migration came in the eleventh century when Turkic tribes began to flow through the area in great numbers as part of their large scale migration into Asia Minor The Turks did not merely pass through the Transolly caucasus however many tribes settled in the area and it was incorporated wholly into the Seljuk Empire in 1071 As was the case with each of the other major migrations through the area the Turks left a lasting mark on the Transcaucasus Bournoutian 2021 p 1 Encyclopaedia Iranica Armenian and Iran VI In the first decade of the 13th century the Armeno Georgian military forces won new victories challenging both the amirs of Xlaṭʿ and the sultan of Ardabil who had embarked upon a marauding raid toward Ani They occupied the city of Ardabil During 1207 08 the domination of the Sah Armans was eliminated The Ayyubids came to power with a more friendly attitude held vis a vis the Armeno Georgian principalities During 1210 11 the Armeno Georgian troops having liberated the whole of eastern Armenia and the larger part of central Armenia were waging victorious fights against the ildegoz atabegs of Azerbaijan These invasions were not mere military conquests moving with the armies were entire nomadic Turkish speaking tribes in migrations which became fateful not only because the foreign Turkish speaking element established itself permanently in Azerbaijan and Armenia but also because it spread that language in the northwestern areas of Iran thereby creating an ethnic barrier between Armenia and Persian speaking Iran The penetration of Oḡuz and other Turkish tribes into the Iranian plateau Azerbaijan and Armenia brought about major changes in the ethnic structure of the population of those countries Meanwhile and during the following decades numerous nomadic Mongol and Turkmen fighting tribes penetrated into Azerbaijan and Armenia and settled permanently in regions which with their rich pastureland and nearby winter shelters were favorable for cattle raising Michael P Croissant 1998 p 2 Some of these peoples settled in the area while others merely passed through or were forced out by warfare or other upheavals Hewsen 1992 p 191 Stokes 2009 p 54 The Mongol leader Chinggis Khan and his armies reached Armenia in 1236 and by 1245 all of Armenia had fallen under Mongol control the Mongol invasion of Armenia proved to be devastating in terms of loss of life and destruction of property Famine massacres Mongol immigration and Arme nian emigration intensified the demographic changes that had begun under the Seljuks The new Mongol overlords imposed high taxes on the population and this resulted in social unrest and a series of violent rebellions Kouymjian 1997 p 2 The population steadily fled the wars pillage famine and ruin augmenting already existing Armenian colonies in the Crimea Central Europe Constantinople and the large urban centers of the Ottoman Empire Syria and Iran Stokes 2009 pp 54 55 Bournoutian 1980 p 11 Hovannisian Vol 1 1997 p 267 Rybakov Alaev Ashfaryan i dr 2002 Kouymjian 1997 p 3 Timur Leng marched through Armenia three times on campaigns of terror and destruction as he passed from his base in the distant east to the shores of the Aegean von Haxthausen 1854 p 251 Under Tamerlane it lost six hundred thousand families one tenth of whom were led away captive no one knows whither Payaslian 2008 p 103 Bournoutian 1994 p 43 The Seljuk Turkish invasion differed in one significant respect from all other previous invasions of Armenia The Turkish nomads remained in Armenia settling on the land and in the mountains During the four enturies before the Ottoman Turks conquered Constantinople and entered Europe the turkification of present day Turkey took place The Armenians and Greeks slowly lost their dominance there and became a minority Emigration war and forced conver sions depleted the Anatolian Christian population significantly Rybakov Alaev Ashfaryan i dr 2002 s 517 Bakihanov 1951 Ryzhov 2004 Payaslian 2008 p 103 Two Turkoman dynasties the Kara Koyunlu Black Sheep centered at Van and the Ak Koyunlu White Sheep at Diarbekir replaced the Timurids and extended their power across Greater Armenia and Iran Smirin 1958 s Glava XXII Gosudarstvo Sefevidov Kouymjian 1997 pp 3 6 Petrushevskij 1949 s 35 Zhukov 1957 s Gl XXXVII Armeniya vplot do serediny XV v podvergalas grabitelskim nabegam kochevnikov Kara Koyunlu Derevni byli razoreny mnogie obrabotannye zemli sdelalis pastbishami dlya kochevnikov Goroda prevratilis v neznachitelnye mestechki Armyanskih feodalov pochti polnostyu zamenila kochevaya znat tyurkoyazychnyh i kurdskih plemyon Chast armyanskogo naseleniya byla uvedena v plen chast emigrirovala Armyanskie torgovo remeslennye kolonii slozhilis vo Lvove v Venecii v Krymu i t d Kouymjian 1997 pp 4 5 Price 2005 p 71 Timur s invasion and the Aq Quyunlu and Qara Quyunlu conflicts depopulated Armenia as more of its people were forced to immigrate into Iran in the fifteenth century Kouymjian 1997 p 5 Payaslian 2008 p 104 One of Kara Yusuf s sons Jihanshah governor of Armenia and Tabriz 1437 1467 after his initial brutalities subsided appointed a number of Armenian nakharars nobles as princes of Siunik Vayots Dzor Artsakh Karabagh and Gugark Kouymjian 1997 p 6 Hille 2010 p XLIII Encyclopaedia Iranica Armenian and Iran VI Through the efforts of Armenian lay and clerical agents in 1441 the central authority of the Armenian church the See of the Catholicate of all Armenians was moved from Cilicia where it had been since 1149 and reestablished at the monastery of Echmiadzin its foundation place in the province of Ararat in central Armenia Encyclopedia Britannica Ejmiatsin Payaslian 2008 p 104 Jihanshah also granted permission to rebuild some of the churches and to reinstitute the catholicosate at Echmiadzin in 1441 The catholicosate of Sishad declined since the collapse of the Armenian kingdom in Cilicia and the ecclesiastical assembly in 1441 which was attended by about 300 clergy and prominent Armenians decided to return the catholicosate to Echmiadzin its original location away from the influences of the Roman Catholic Church Walker 2004 pp 92 93 Bournoutian 1997 p 85 Zolotaryov Avdeev 1995 s 367 Feodaly kochevyh i polukochevyh kurdskih i turkmenskih plemyon zhestoko ekspluatirovali armyanskoe naselenie Turki stremilis obratit armyan v islam Po prikazu sultana proizvodilis periodicheskie sbory mladencev kotorye vospityvalis v osobyh lageryah tysyachi yunoshej stanovilis yanycharami Bournoutian 1997 p 84 Encyclopaedia Iranica Armenian and Iran VI The constant movements of hundreds of thousands of armed fighters and the bloody clashes of the opposing armies devastated the central provinces of the country The Armenian population was subjected to plunder and slavery Mass flight and emigration to foreign countries grew to large proportions Gadlo 1998 Odnako neodnokratnoe razrushenie v techenie XIII XVI vv proizvoditelnyh sil strany massovoe unichtozhenie zhitelej razorenie selenij i gorodov priveli k upadku hozyajstva i vozvrasheniyu k arhaicheskim socialnym otnosheniyam Encyclopaedia Iranica Armenian and Iran VI In these confused and critical times the Muslim chieftains in Armenia intensified their pressure on the remnants of Armenian feudalism and their attempts of assimilation by forced apostasy During the days of the more fanatic rulers the so called Jaʿfari law was put to wider use whereby an Armenian accepting Islam was able to claim as his alone the entire wealth of his parents see Persidskie dokumenty document no 16 Rybakov Alaev Ashfaryan i dr 2002 s 496 Kouymjian 1997 pp 7 8 Price 2005 p 71 Early conquests by the Safavids extended their influence into Transcaucasia and Armenia The move resulted in the Ottoman invasion of Armenia These conflicts lasted for decades The Safavids and Ottomans deported thousands destroyed hundreds of villages in Armenia and depopulated entire regions Payaslian 2008 p 105 Meanwhile Armenia became a battleground between the Ottomans and the emerging Safavid empire 1502 1783 in Iran as they struggled for regional supremacy and their constant campaigns and countercampaigns led to westward migration by Armenians Kouymjian 1997 p 9 Bournoutian 1994 p 44 From 1501 until 1639 the two fought each other periodically in Armenia Armenians were uprooted during these wars Kouymjian 1997 p 14 Bournoutian 2003 p 206 Bournoutian 2003 p 207 Kouymjian 1997 p 17 Payaslian 2008 p 105 The new Safavid leader Shah Abbas r 1588 1629 felt compelled to sign a peace treaty with Murad in 1590 surrendering Tabriz Shirvan and parts of eastern Armenia Kouymjian 1997 pp 18 19 Petrushevskij 1949 s 104 Encyclopaedia Iranica Armenian and Iran VI The external invasions ceased partially only after 1590 when the Safavid Shah Abbas I r 996 1038 1588 1629 enthroned two years earlier was forced to sign a peace agreement of heavy conditions with Sultan Moḥammad III ceding to him Armenia the whole of Transcaucasia and Azerbaijan But after settling his account with the Uzbek amirs who had invaded Khorasan he reorganized his army with advanced weaponry and in 1603 attacked in order to take back these lands where the 15 year Turkish domination had created severe discontent within all levels of the population The new redistributions and dispositions of the Ottoman authorities regarding lands and feudal possessions fostered rebellion of the native feudal elements and many Armenian Georgian and Muslim princes took refuge in Iran receiving a cordial welcome from Shah ʿAbbas The working population was subjected to unrestrained plunder and oppression by the authorities assigned by the Ottomans and many hoped that the new campaign started by the shah would free them from that heavy yoke Price 2005 p 71 Shah Abbas moved thousands of Armenians to Iran and the Ottomans settled thousands of Kurds in Armenia Arakel Davrizheci 1978 Tolko chto smenilsya god i nastupil 1054 god armyanskogo letoschisleniya 1605 byl pervyj armyanskij mesyac navasard kogda izgnali 41 zhitelej strany I persidskie vojska poslannye vyselyat narod podnyav izgonyali ego iz dereven i gorodov predavali ognyu i bezzhalostno szhigali vse poseleniya doma i obitalisha A takzhe zagotovlennye vprok seno i soloma pshenica i yachmen i drugie pripasy vsyo bylo unichtozheno i predano ognyu Tak persy razorili i opustoshili stranu iz za osmanskih vojsk daby ne ostalos nichego dlya prokormleniya ih i oni okazalis by v opasnosti A takzhe chtoby u izgnannogo naseleniya pri vide etogo drognulo by serdce i ono ne vernulos by obratno I poka persidskie vojska naznachennye soprovozhdat narod vyselyali i sgonyali ego na Echmiadzinskoe pole a shah Abbas nahodilsya v Agdzhakale osmanskij sardar Dzhgal ogly so svoim vojskom dobralsya do Karsa Shah Abbas znal chto v otkrytom boyu ne smozhet zaderzhat osmanov i ispugavshis mnogochislennosti ih povernul i poshyol so vsem vojskom svoim za ratyu narodnoj k Persii V Baladouni M Makepeace 1998 p XX During this protracted campaighn the Shah forcibly moved the Armenian population from Caucasian Armenia to Persia proper leaving behind scorched cities and villages Encyclopaedia Iranica Armenian and Iran VI The Safavid army captured Tabriz Naḵǰavan and Erevan iravan and extended its incursion to Ganǰa It also invaded central Armenia approaching Erzerum But when news was received that the Ottoman army had already reached Mus and was preparing to move in the direction of Erevan the shah decided to avoid battle and ordered retreat by destroying and depopulating the villages and towns on their way see ibid chap 4 In the course of its history of many centuries the Armenian people had not yet been subjected to such a major disaster Central Armenia in its entirety was in disarray Detachments of qezelbas soldiers stormed the whole countryside leaving behind everything totally devastated Immense masses were being driven from all directions to the Ararat plain to be sent from there to the steppes of central Iran The strategic aim of this forced deportation was to depopulate the area which the adversary s army had to traverse Yet at the same time the shah was thinking of relocating this large multitude of refugees in the wide areas around his capital and to promote agriculture crafts and trade in the central provinces of the country For this reason he showed particular eagerness in deporting the population of Julfa Jolfa the thriving commercial city on the banks of the Aras river Kouymjian 1997 p 20 Bournoutian 1997 p 96 By the end of the eighteenth century the Armenian population of the territory had shrunk considerably Centuries of warfare and invasions combined with the tyranny of local khans had forced the emigration of the Armenians It is probable the until the seventeenth century the Armenians still maintained a majority in Eastern Armenia but the forced relocation of some 250 000 Armenians by Shah Abbas and the numerous exoduses described in this chapter had reduced the Armenian population considerably Bournoutian 1994 p 44 Armenians were uprooted during these wars and in 1604 some 250 000 Armenians were forcibly transferred by Shah Abbas to Iran By the seventeents century the Armenian had become a minority in parts of their historic lands Encyclopaedia Iranica Armenian and Iran VI According to contemporary testimony the number of deported from this area was in excess of 300 000 the same sources however state that in mountainous areas the population of certain villages succeeded in hiding in the rifts of the mountains and thus avoided the forced exodus Bournoutian 1997 p 96 Rybakov Belyavskij i dr 1983 s 274 V 1604 g na Armeniyu obrushilos ocherednoe neschaste otstupaya v Iran Abbas I ugnal okolo 350 tys naseleniya glavnym obrazom armyanskogo Bournoutian 2003 p 208 In the summer of 1604 at the news of an Ottoman counteroffensive Abbas laid waste much of the territory between Kars and Ani and deported its Armenians and Muslims into Iranian Azerbaijan According to primary sources some 250 000 to 300 000 Armemians were removed from the region between 1604 and 1605 Thousands died crossing the Arax River Many of the Armenians were eventually settled in Iranian Azerbaijan where other Armenians had settled carlier Some ended up in the Mazandaran region and in the cities of Sultanich Qazvin Mashhad Hamadan and Shiraz The wealthy Armenians of Julfa were brought to the Safavid capital of Isfahan Jacob Seth 2005 p 148 A large Armenian colony of 12000 families from Julfa on the Araxes in Armenia settled there in 1605 during the glorious reign of Shah Abbas the Great Rybakov Alaev Ashfaryan i dr 2000 s 113 Na mesto izgnannyh armyan byli poseleny tyurki kyzylbashi kadzhar i dr Kouymjian 1997 p 21 von Haxthausen 1854 p 250 Encyclopaedia Iranica Armenian and Iran VI In the course of its history of many centuries the Armenian people had not yet been subjected to such a major disaster Payaslian 2008 p 105 Bournoutian 1997 p 81 Payaslian 2008 p 105 Meanwhile Armenia became a battleground between the Ottomans and the emerging Safavid empire 1502 1783 in Iran as they struggled for regional supremacy and their constant campaigns and countercampaigns led to west ward migration by Armenians Kouymjian 1997 p 21 Armenia had been ruined by more than a hundred years of attacks and counterattacks Foreign travelers testify that Ararat Alashkert Bayazit and the plain of Nakhichevan were deserted Nomadic Kurds and Turkmens moved into many of the ravished or abandoned areas The natural economy of the region was destroyed Bournoutian 2021 p 3 Lea and others 2001 p 1 After many years of dispute Armenia was partitioned between the Turkish Ottoman Empire which secured the larger western part and the Persian Empire by the Treaty of Zuhab Bournoutian 1994 pp 44 45 Zolotaryov Avdeev 1995 s 367 V svoyu ochered v 1639 g byla okonchatelno razdelena i Armeniya Zapadnaya Armeniya otoshla k Turcii Vostochnaya k Iranu Vostochnaya Armeniya voshla v osnovnom v sostav Erivanskogo beglerbegstva i Nahichevanskogo hanstva Poslednimi ostatkami armyanskoj gosudarstvennosti yavlyalis pyat melikstv Nagornogo Karabaha Territoriya zapadnoj Armenii voshla v neskolko pashalykov i vilajetov Turcii Encyclopaedia Iranica Armenian and Iran VI The fighting which began with Shah ʿAbbas invasion did not end during his reign it continued with fluctuating success and came to an end only after his death 1038 1629 during the days of his successor Shah Ṣafi who signed a peace agreement in 1639 By this agreement the boundaries between the two states which were drawn by the treaty of Amasia in 962 1555 q v were reconfirmed with minor changes In accordance with this in Armenia the Perso Ottoman boundary began from the mountains of Javaxkʿ and passing along the Axuryan river the range of the Armenian mountains the western slopes of Mt Ararat and along the Vaspurakan mountains joined the Zagros mountains The Safavid state included within its boundaries the totality of the historic Armenian provinces of Siwnikʿ Arcʿax Utikʿ Pʿaytakaran and Persarmenia and also the eastern countries of Ararat Gugarkʿ and Vaspurakan According to the new administrative division these provinces were under the authority of the beglerbegs of Cʿuxur Sad Qarabaḡ and Azerbaijan Bournoutian 1997 pp 81 82 For the next eight decades Eastern Armenia remained under the control of the Safavids who divided it into two administrative units Chukhur i Sa ad or the territory of Erevan and Nakhichevan and Karabagh formed from the combined regions of Karabagh Zangezur Siunik and Ganja Chukhur i Sa ad was composed of sections from the historic Armenian provinces of Ayrarat Gugark and Vaspurakan Karabagh contained the ancient provinces of Artsakh and Siunik while Ganja or Gandzak represented the historic Armenian province of Utik Payaslian 2008 p 107 the Safavids established the two provinces of Chukhur i Sa d encompassing Erevan and Nakhijevan and Karabagh which included Zangezur Siunik and Ganja Each region was placed under a governor general beglarbegi Bournoutian 2003 p 211 Walker 2004 p 94 Following the destruction of the Akkoyunlu by the Safavids the new rulers of Persia against whom the melikdoms appear to have been established confirmed the meliks in their power and privileges The whole of eastern Armenia came under the dominion of Persia where it remained apart from brief incursions by the Ottomans until the Russian conquests of the early nineteenth century Walker 2004 p 94 Michael P Croissant 1998 pp 9 11 P 9 At the time much of the focus was on the heartland of Turkish Armenia but two regions in Transcaucasian Armenia also stirred significant irredentist feelings Nagorno Karabakh and Nakhichevan both of which were attached to Azerbaijan under the imperial Russian system of administration P 11 Importantly disunion amongst the five princes allowed the establishment of a foothold in mountainous Karabakh by a Turkic tribe around 1750 This event marked the first time that Turks were able to penetrate the eastern Armenian highlands Minahan 2002 After repeated rebellions independence and reconquest the last of the Armenian kingdom was conquered by the Arab Mamelukes in 1375 The only reamaining autonomous pockets of Armenian were in Karabakh and Zangezour both in eastern Armenia Bournoutian 1980 pp 1 2 Hudobashev 1859 s 25 27 Grigoryan 1959 s 11 12 Smirin 1958 s Glava XXIII Narody Kavkaza i Srednej Azii v XVI i pervoj polovine XVII v V XVI XVII vv kolichestvo kochevnikov zdes dazhe uvelichilos blagodarya politike zavoevatelej pereselyavshih syuda kochevnikov kurdov i turkmen s celyu razedinit i oslabit mestnoe osedloe naselenie Hovannisian 1967 p 10 von Haxthausen 1854 p 252 Since the eighteenth century this fine country has lain in a state of decay a circumstance in part attributable perhaps to the present mixed state of the inhabitants who have succeeded the Armenians that were carried away prisoners The Tatars and Koords who have been brought hither and settled now form half the population Bournoutian 1997 p 96 By the end of the eighteenth century the Armenian population of the territory had shrunk considerably Centuries of warfare and invasions combined with the tyranny of local khans had forced the emigration of the Armenians It is probable that until the seventeenth century the Armenian still maintained a majority in Eastern Armenia but the forced relocation of some 250 000 Armenian by Shah Abbas and the numerous exoduses described in this chapter had reduced the Armenian population considerably The census conducted by the Russians in 1830 1831 indicates that by the nineteenth century Armenians of Erevan and Nakhichevan formed 20 percent of population The Armenians of Ganja had also been reduced to a minority Only in the mountains regions of Karabakh and Zangezur did the Armenian manage to maintain a solid majority Bournoutian 1994 pp 44 45 The Russian conquest of eastern Armenia following the Russo Persian Wars of 1804 1813 and 1826 1828 allowed the Armenians a chance to advance In 1639 the Iranians and Ottomans ended their long period of hostility and partitioned Armenia Two thirds of historic Armenia became known as Western or Turkish Armenia while the remaining one third became Eastern or Persian Armenia The division lasted for over two centuries until Russia conqured eastern Armenia and made it Russian Armenia Herzig 2002 p 76 In 1828 the Russian Empire gained Eastern Persian Armenia by the Treaty of Turkmanchai Hacikyan and others 2000 p 10 Thus almost all of Eastern Armenia became part of Russia with the Arax river marking the boundary Shnirelman 2003 s 45 v Vostochnuyu Armeniyu okazavshuyusya posle russko iranskih vojn nachala XIX veka v sostave Rossijskoj imperii Bournoutian 1994 p 45 The situation of the Armenians in Russia was better The Russia conquest of eastern Armenia folowing the Russo Persian war of 1804 1813 and 1826 1828 allowed the armenians a chance to advance Mokyr 2003 p 157 During the periods from 1804 to 1813 and from 1813 to 1828 the Russian Persian wars led to eastern Armenia s incorporation into Russian Empire Bournoutian 1980 p 2 Armenia was the last territory to be conquered by the Russians during the Russo Persian Wars of 1804 1813 and 1826 1828 Immediately following the Treaty of Torkmanchay 1828 the Russians began to set up their administrative ap paratus in the region Payaslian 2008 p 111 The Treaty of Turkmenchay a village between Tabriz and Tehran signed in February 1828 granted the khanates of Erevan and Nakhichevan to Russia therebyestablishing Russian control over all of Eastern Armenia with the new boundary set at the Arax River Mokyr 2003 p 157 During the periods from 1804 to 1813 and from 1813 to 1828 the Russian Persian wars led to eastern Armenia s incorporation into the Russian Empire Adalian 2010 p xlvi Eastern Armenia brought under Russian control Iran relinquishes sovereignty over historic East Armenia Nerses Ashtaraketsi encourages Armenians from Iran to return to Armenia Hovannisian 1967 p 11 Hovannisian 1971 p 35 LiteraturaKnigi Na russkom yazyke Ananiya Shirakaci Armyanskaya geografiya VII v po R H pripisyvavshayasya Moiseyu Horenskomu Per s dr arm i komment K P Patkanova Vstupit st K P Patkanova Աշխարհացույց VII վ SPb Tipografiya Imperatorskoj Akademii Nauk 1877 Prisoedinenie Vostochnoj Armenii k Rossii Sbornik dokumentov T 1 Sost C P Agayan S A Ter Avakimova D A Muradyan V A Diloyan Erevan AN ArmSSR 1972 T 1 1801 1813 682 s Takzhe dostupno na sajte vostlit info Prisoedinenie Vostochnoj Armenii k Rossii Sbornik dokumentov T 2 Sost C P Agayan V A Diloyan A V Aleksanyan pod red S M Danielyana Erevan AN ArmSSR 1978 T 2 1814 1830 659 s Takzhe dostupno na sajte vostlit info Koryun Zhitie Mashtoca per Sh V Smbatyana i K A Melik Ogadzhanyana M 1962 Glinka S N Opisanie pereseleniya armyan adderbidzhanskih v predely Rossii s kratkim predvaritelnym izlozheniem istoricheskih vremyon Armenii pocherpnutoe iz sovremennyh zapisok Sergeem Glinkoj Moskva V tip Lazarevyh Instituta vost yaz 1831 142 s 2 l faks 21 sm Ananov I N Sudba Armenii I N Ananov Moskva Zadruga 1918 32 s 23 sm Svoboda i bratstvo narodov Strizhov I M Terehova N M Rossiya i eyo kolonii kak Gruziya Ukraina Moldaviya Pribaltika i Srednyaya Aziya voshli v sostav Rossii Dar 2007 575 s Hristianskij mir ISBN 978 5 485 00111 7 V A Zolotaryov V A Avdeev Voennaya istoriya otechestva s drevnih vremyon do nashih dnej V 3 t M Mosgorarhiv 1995 T 1 513 s Hachikyan A E Istoriya Armenii Kratkij ocherk 3 e izd pererab i dop Erevan Edit Print 2016 311 s ISBN 978 9939 52 083 4 Mihalyov S N Voennaya strategiya Podgotovka i vedenie vojn Novogo i Novejshego vremeni Vstup st i red V A Zolotoryova M Kuchkovo pole 2003 952 s ISBN 5 86090 060 0 Akty sobrannye Kavkazskoj arheograficheskoj komissiej Tom VII Berzhe A P Tiflis Tip Glavnogo Upravleniya Namestnika Kavkazskogo 1878 1011 s A P Novoselcev V T Pashuto L V Cherepnin Puti razvitiya feodalizma Zakavkaze Sred Aziya Rus Pribaltika M Nauka 1972 338 s Dostupna dlya skachivaniya Shnirelman V A Vojny pamyati mify identichnost i politika v Zakavkaze Recenzent L B Alaev M IKC Akademkniga 2003 592 s ISBN 5 94628 118 6 V N Leviatov Ocherki iz istorii Azerbajdzhana v XVIII v Baku AN AzSSR 1948 227 s Istoriya Vostoka V 6 t R B Rybakov L B Alaev K Z Ashrafyan i dr M Vostochnaya literatura 2002 T 2 Vostok v srednie veka 716 s ISBN 5 02 017711 3 Istoriya Vostoka V 6 t R B Rybakov L B Alaev K Z Ashrafyan i dr M Vostochnaya literatura RAN 2000 T 3 Vostok na rubezhe srednevekovya i novogo vremeni XVI XVIII vv 696 s ISBN 5 02 017913 2 B A Rybakov M T Belyavskij G A Novickij A M Saharov Istoriya SSSR s drevnejshih vremyon do konca XVIII v 2 e izd pererab i dop M Vysshaya shkola 1983 415 s Ryzhov K V Kara koyunlu Vse monarhi mira Musulmanskij Vostok VII XV vv M Veche 2004 541 s ISBN 5 94538 301 5 Petrushevskij I P Ocherki po istorii feodalnyh otnoshenij v Azerbajdzhane i Armenii v XVI nachale XIX vv Leningrad Leningradskij universitet 1949 182 s Arakel Davrizheci 4 Kniga istorij Perevod s armyanskogo M Glavnaya redakciya vostochnoj literatury izdatelstva Nauka 1978 Grigoryan Z T Prisoedinenie Vostochnoj Armenii k Rossii v nachale XIX veka M Izdatelstvo socialno ekonomicheskoj literatury 1959 184 s P T Arutyunyan S A Ter Avakimova V A Akopyan Armyano russkie otnosheniya v pervoj treti XVIII veka Sb dokumentov A R Ioannisyan Erevan Izdatelstvo AN ArmSSR 1964 T 2 Ch 1 818 s P T Arutyunyan S A Ter Avakimova V A Akopyan Armyano russkie otnosheniya v pervoj treti XVIII veka Sb dokumentov A R Ioannisyan Erevan Izdatelstvo AN ArmSSR 1967 T 2 Ch 2 430 s Vsemirnaya istoriya V 10 tomah E M Zhukov M Gosudarstvennoe izdatelstvo politicheskoj literatury 1957 T 3 Vsemirnaya istoriya V 10 tomah M M Smirin M Socekgiz 1958 T 4 823 s V A Zolotaryov V A Avdeev Voennaya istoriya otechestva s drevnih vremyon do nashih dnej V 3 t M Mosgorarhiv 1995 T 1 513 s Gadlo A V Narody Zakavkazya Etnografiya narodov Srednej Azii i Zakavkazya tradicionnaya kultura SPb Izdatelstvo Sankt Peterburgskogo universiteta 1998 94 s ISBN 5 288 02161 9 Eremyan S T Armeniya soglasno Geografii 7 go veka Հայաստանը ըստ Աշխարհացոյց Erevan 1963 Muradyan M A Vostochnaya Armeniya v russkoj istoriografii XIX v Erevan Ajastan 1990 170 s ISBN 5540000544 P A Grincer E M Meletinskij A N Robinson L Z Ejdlin Istoriya vsemirnoj literatury Srednevekovaya literatura III XIII vv H G Korogly A D Mihajlov M Nauka 1984 T 2 672 s Strabon Geografiya v 17 knigah Perevod s dr grech G A Stratanovskogo O O Kryuger S L Utchenko M Ladomir 1994 Takzhe dostupno tut G G Sarkisyan Tablicy Naselenie Vostochnoj Armenii v XIX nachale XX v etnodemograficheskoe issledovanie Արևելյան Հայաստանի բնակչությունը XIX դ XX դ սկզբներին D S Vardumyan Yu I Mkrtumyan Er NAN RA Institut arheologii i etnografii Centr etnokulturolog issledovanij Vostan Gitutyun 2002 212 s Kuznecova N A Iran v pervoj polovine XIX veka Gankovskij Yu V M Nauka Glavnaya redakciya vostochnoj literatury 1983 265 s Gaj Plinij Sekund Starshij Estestvennaya istoriya Kn VI Geografiya Kavkaz Aziya 77 Dion Kassij Rimskaya Istoriya Perevod s angl S E Tariverdievoj i O V Lyubimovoj Takzhe dostupnaya anglijskaya versiya Favstos Buzand Istoriya Armenii Eremyan S T Erevan AN ASSR 1953 Tak zhe dostupna na sajte vehi net Obozrenie Armenii v geograficheskom istoricheskom i literaturnom otnosheniyah Hudobashev A M SPb Tip 2 Otd Sobstvennaya E I V kancelyariya 1859 560 s Lucij Mestrij Plutarh Pompej Sravnitelnye zhizneopisaniya I II v M Horenskij Istoriya Armenii Perevod N O Emina s primechaniyami i prilozheniyami M Tipografiya V A Gatcuk 1893 363 s Movses Horenaci Istoriya Armenii Per s drevnearm yazyka primechaniya G Sarkisyana Red S Arevshatyan Erevan Ajastan 1990 Bakihanov Abbas Kuli aga GULUSTANI IREM Baku AZYaRBAJAN SSR ELMLYaR AKADEMIJASY TARIH vya FYaLSYaFYa INSTITUTU 1951 Na anglijskom yazyke George A Bournoutian From the Kur to the Aras A Military History of Russia s Move into the South Caucasus and the First Russo Iranian War 1801 1813 Brill 2021 318 p Iran Studies Vol 22 ISBN 978 90 04 44516 1 ISBN 978 90 04 44515 4 George A Bournoutian A Concise History of the Armenian People from Ancient Times to the Present angl 2 Mazda Publishers 2003 ISBN 978 1568591414 George A Bournoutian Armenia and Imperial Decline The Yerevan Province 1900 1914 Routledge 2018 412 p ISBN 9781351062626 Hovannisian R G The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan 1997 Vol I The Dynastic Periods From Antiquity to the Fourteenth Century 386 p ISBN 0 312 10169 4 ISBN 978 0 312 10169 5 Robert H Hewsen The geography of Armenia The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times Richard G Hovannisian NY Palgrave Macmillan 1997 P 1 18 386 p ISBN 0 312 10169 4 ISBN 978 0 312 10169 5 Hovannisian R G The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times Palgrave Macmillan 1997 Vol II Foreign Dominion to Statehood The Fifteenth Century to the Twentieth Century 493 p ISBN 0312101686 ISBN 9780312101688 angl Armenia from the Fall of the Cilician Kingdom 1375 to the Forced Emigration under Shah Abbas 1604 The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times Richard G Hovannisian NY Palgrave Macmillan 1997 P 1 50 493 p ISBN 0312101686 ISBN 9780312101688 George A Bournoutian Eastern Armenia from the 17th Century to the Russian Annexation The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times Richard G Hovannisian Palgrave Macmillan 1997 P 81 107 493 p ISBN 0312101686 ISBN 9780312101688 Ronald Grigor Suny Eastern Armenians under tsarist rule The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times Richard G Hovannisian Palgrave Macmillan 1997 P 109 137 493 p ISBN 0312101686 ISBN 9780312101688 Richard G Hovannisian The armenian question in the Ottoman empire 1876 1914 The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times Richard G Hovannisian Palgrave Macmillan 1997 P 203 239 493 p ISBN 0312101686 ISBN 9780312101688 Richard G Hovannisian Armenia s road to independence The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times Richard G Hovannisian Palgrave Macmillan 1997 P 275 302 493 p ISBN 0312101686 ISBN 9780312101688 Richard G Hovannisian Armenia on the Road to Independence angl University of California Press 1967 364 p George A Bournoutian Armenian An Ethnohistorical Dictionary of the Russian and Soviet Empires James Stuart Olson Lee Brigance Pappas Nicholas Charles Pappas Westport Conn Greenwood press 1994 840 p ISBN 9780313274978 George A Bournoutian Eastern Armenia in the Last Decades of Persian Rule 1807 1828 a political and socioeconomic study of the khanate of Erevan on the eve of the Russian conquest Malibu California Calif Undena Publications 1982 290 p ISBN 0890031231 ISBN 9780890031230 Mesrovb Jacob Seth Armenians in India from the Earliest Times to the Present Day A Work of Original Research New Delhi Asian Educational Services 2005 629 p ISBN 9788120608122 David Nicolle Christa Hook Manzikert 1071 The breaking of Byzantium UK Osprey Publishing 2013 96 p ISBN 9781780965031 angl The History of Armenia From the Origins to the Present NY Palgrave Macmillan US 2008 294 p Palgrave essential histories ISBN 9780230608580 F Kazemzadeh Iranian relations with Russia and the soviet Union to 1921 The Cambridge History of Iran Vol 7 From Nadir Shah to the Islamic Republic Peter Avery Gavin Hambly Charles Melville NY Cambridge University Press 2008 1036 p ISBN 978 0 521 20095 0 Christopher J Walker The Armenian presence in mountainous Karabakh Transcaucasian Boundaries John Wright Richard Schofield Suzanne Goldenberg Psychology Press 2004 248 p ISBN 9780203214473 August Freiherr von Haxthausen Transcaucasia Sketches of the Nations and Races Between the Black Sea and the Caspian London Chapman 1854 448 p The Iranian world The Cambridge History of Iran Vol 5 The saljuq and mongol periods William Bayne Fisher J A Boyle John Andrew Boyle Ilya Gershevitch Ehsan Yarshater Richard Nelson Frye NY Cambridge University Press 1968 778 p ISBN 9780521069366 Ronald Grigor Suny Looking toward Ararat Armenia in modern history Bloomington and Indianapolis Indiana University Press 1993 289 p ISBN 0253207738 Ronald Grigor Suny Transcaucasia nationalism and social change essays in the history of Armenia Azerbaijan and Georgia 2 University of Michigan Press 1996 543 p ISBN 9780472096176 Mark Malkasian Gha ra bagh The Emergence of the National Democratic Movement in Armenia Detroit Mich Wayne State University Press 1996 236 p ISBN 0814326048 James Barry Armenian Christians in Iran Ethnicity Religion and Identity in the Islamic Republic Cambridge Cambridge University Press 2019 322 p ISBN 9781108429047 Houri Berberian Armenians And The Iranian Constitutional Revolution Of 1905 1911 The Love For Freedom Has No Fatherland NY Routledge 2001 248 p ISBN 9780429981845 Percy Sykes A history of Persia 3rd edition NY Barnes amp Noble 1969 Vol 2 616 p Gabriel Basmajian Edward S Franchuk Nourhan Ouzounian The Heritage of Armenian Literature From the eighteenth century to modern times Agop Jack Hacikyan Detroit Wayne State University Press 2000 Vol 3 1072 p ISBN 9780814332214 Leonard F Wise E W Egan Kings Rulers and Statesmen Ph D Mark Hillary Hansen NY Sterling Publishing Company 2005 318 p ISBN 9781402725920 Charlotte Mathilde Louise Hille State Building and Conflict Resolution in the Caucasus Brill 2010 359 p ISBN 9789004179011 Mikaberidze Alexander Historical Dictionary of Georgia 2 Rowman amp Littlefield 2015 ISBN 978 1442241466 Sir John Malcolm The History of Persia from the Earliest Period to the Present Time London Murray 1829 611 p Michael P Croissant The Armenia Azerbaijan Conflict Causes and Implications USA Greenwood Publishing Group 1998 172 p ISBN 978 0275962418 Joseph R Masih Robert O Krikorian Armenia At the Crossroads angl Amsterdam Harwood Academic Publishers 1999 142 p ISBN 9789057023446 Timothy C Dowling Volume I A M Russia at War From the Mongol Conquest to Afghanistan Chechnya and Beyond Santa Barbara California ABC CLIO 2015 1077 p ISBN 1598849484 Farroh K Iran at War 1500 1988 angl Oxford Osprey Publ 2011 480 p ISBN 978 1 78096 240 5 Armenia A Political Chronology of the Middle East David Lea Annamarie Rowe Dr Isabel Miller First edition UK Psychology Press 2001 P 1 7 282 p ISBN 9781857431155 Michael A Reynolds Shattering Empires The Clash and Collapse of the Ottoman and Russian Empires 1908 1918 angl Cambridge University Press 2011 ISBN 978 0 521 14916 7 Andrew C S Peacock Early Seljuq History A New Interpretation Routledge Studies in the History of Iran and Turkey London Routledge 2010 Vol 7 190 p Armenian Merchants of the Seventeenth and Early Eighteenth Centuries English East India Company Sources Vahe Baladouni Margaret Makepeace Philadelphia American Philosophical Society 1998 293 p ISBN 9780871698858 Massoume Price Iran s Diverse Peoples A Reference Sourcebook ABC CLIO 2005 376 p ISBN 9781576079935 William Blackwood and sons Blackwood s Edinburgh Magazine London W Blackwood amp Sons 1849 Vol 65 782 p Gabriel Basmajian Edward S Franchuk Nourhan Ouzounian The Heritage of Armenian Literature From the eighteenth century to modern times Agop Jack Hacikyan Detroit Wayne State University Press 2000 Vol 3 1072 p ISBN 9780814332214 Rudolph P Matthee David Morgan The Politics of Trade in Safavid Iran Silk for Silver 1600 1730 Cambridge University Press 1999 290 p Cambridge Studies in Islamic Civilization ISBN 9780521641319 Ch Carter Y L Arbeitman Carter Arbeitman The Asia Minor Connexion Studies on the Pre Greek Languages in Memory of Charles Carter Y L Arbeitman Peeters Publishers 2000 243 p ISBN 9789042907980 The English Cyclopaedia Geography Charles Knight London Bradbury Evans 1866 Vol II Huberta von Voss Wittig Portraits of Hope Armenians in the Contemporary World Berghahn Books 2007 340 p ISBN 9781845452575 Heinz Ohme Das Concilium Quinisextum und seine Bischofsliste Walter de Gruyter 1990 423 p ISBN 9783110124323 Roderick Beaton David Ricks Digenes Akrites new approaches to Byzantine heroic poetry Variorum 1993 196 p ISBN 9780860783954 Armenia A Dictionary of World History Anne Kerr Thomas Edmund Farnsworth Wright Edmund Wright Oxford UK Oxford University Press 2015 S 35 36 712 p ISBN 9780199685691 Bayarsaikhan Dashdondog The Mongols and the Armenians 1220 1335 Michael R Drompp Devin DeWeese Leiden Boston Brill 2011 270 p Brill s Inner Asian Library Volume 24 ISBN 978 90 04 18635 4 Robert H Hewsen The Geography of Ananias of Sirak ASXARHACOYC Reichert 1992 501 p Robert H Hewsen Armenia A Historical Atlas University of Chicago Press 2001 332 p Cyril Leo Toumanoff Studies in Christian Caucasian History Washington D C Georgetown University Press 1963 599 p Team of authors The Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge GB London Longman Brown Green and Longmans 1844 Vol III Christopher J Walker The armenian presence in mountainos Karabakh Transcaucasian Boundaries John F R Wright Richard Schofield Suzanne Goldenberg UCL Press 1996 248 p ISBN 9781857282351 Rouben Paul Adalian Historical Dictionary of Armenia Scarecrow Press 2010 674 p ISBN 9780810874503 Mark Levene Devastation OUP Oxford 2013 Vol I The European Rimlands 1912 1938 576 p ISBN 9780199683031 Na nemeckom yazyke angl Eranshahr Berlin Weidmannsche buchhandlung 1901 Bd III Stati Na russkom yazyke N G Volkova Etnicheskie processy v Zakavkaze v XIX XX vv Kavkazskij etnograficheskij sbornik V K Gardanov M 1969 Vyp IV S 3 54 A P Novoselcev K voprosu o politicheskoj granice Armenii i Kavkazskoj Albanii v antichnyj period Kavkaz i Vizantiya 1979 Vyp 1 S 10 18 S V Yushkov K voprosu o granicah drevnej Albanii Istoricheskie zapiski 1937 S 129 148 B A Dorn Kaspij O pohodah drevnih russkih v Tabaristan Zapiski Akademii Nauk 1875 T XXVI prilozhenie 1 A O Yanovskij O drevnej Kavkazskoj Albanii Zhurnal Ministrerstva narodnogo prosvesheniya 1846 Vyp ch 52 S 97 Petrosyan E S Rol Sisanidskogo Irana v formirovanii kartiny mira vostochnyh armyan v IV V vv Drevnij mir Istoriya i arheologiya Trudy Mezhdunarodnoj nauchnoj konferencii Dyakovskie chteniya kafedry istorii drevnego mira i srednih vekov im prof V F Semyonova MPGU 3 dekabrya 2016 g N I Vinokurov Yu V Kulikova A V gorohova M MPGU 2017 S 52 57 Na anglijskom yazyke Dr Edmund Herzig Armenia en Eastern Europe Russia and Central Asia 3rd edition UK Taylor amp Francis 2002 P 73 99 ISBN 1470 5702 George A Bournoutian The Population of Persian Armenia Prior to and Immediately Following its Annexation to the Russian Empire 1826 32 en NATIONALISM AND SOCIAL CHANGE IN TRANSCAUCASIN 1980 25 aprelya George A Bournoutian The Politics of Demography Misuse of Sources on the Armenian Population of Mountainous Karabakh en Journal of the Society for Armenian Studies 9 New York 1999 Richard G Hovannisian Russian Armenia A Century of Tsarist Rule en Jahrbucher fur Geschichte Osteuropas 1971 Mart P 31 48 JSTOR 41044266 Knarik Avakian The Early History of Armenian Emigration to the USA Evidence from the Archives of the Armenian Patriarchate of Constantinople en Journal of the Society for Armenian Studies University of Michigan 2008 Vol 17 P 97 126 Levon Vartanesyan An Armenian Signet Ring from Afion Karahissar en Journal of the Society for Armenian Studies University of Michigan 2008 Vol 17 P 207 210 U S Congress House Committee on Banking Finance and Urban Affairs Subcommittee on Economic Stabilization The land of Karabagh geography amp history prior to 1920 en Eastern Europe Exchange Opportunities Hearings Before the Subcommittee on Economic Stabilization of the Committee on Banking Finance and Urban Affairs House of Representatives Washington U S Government Printing Office 1990 14 15 febrary vyp One Hundred First Congress Second Session P 274 275 Nina Garsoian Armano Iranian Relations in Pre Islamic Period en Iran Chamber Society 2004 Robert H Hewsen The Kingdom of Arc ax Artsakh en Medieval Armenian Culture University of Pennsylvania Armenian Texts and Studies Thomas J Samuelian Michael E Stone Scholars Press 1984 P 42 68 Enciklopedii Encyclopedia Iranica Armenian and Iran II The pre Islamic period Encyclopedia Iranica Encyclopedia Iranica Armenian and Iran IV Iranian influences in Armenian Language Encyclopedia Iranica Encyclopaedia Iranica Armenian and Iran VI Armeno Iranian relations in the Islamic period Encyclopaedia Iranica Encyclopedia Iranica Ayrarat Encyclopedia Iranica Encyclopedia Britannica History of Transcaucasia Russian penetration Encyclopedia Britannica Encyclopedia Britannica History of Transcaucasia Armenia Encyclopedia Britannica Encyclopedia Britannica Ejmiatsin Encyclopedia Britannica Armenia The Oxford Encyclopedia of Economic History Joel Mokyr NY Oxford University Press 2003 Vol 5 2824 p ISBN 9780195105070 Arminiya The encyclopedia of Islam H A R Gibb J H Kramers E Levi Provencal J Schacht B Lewis Ch Pellat Assisted by S M Stern pp 1 330 C Dumont and R M Savory pp 321 1359 Leiden Netherlands E J Brill 1986 Vol I A B P 634 650 1359 p ISBN 90 04 08114 3 J Denis Derbyshire Lan Derbyshire Encyclopedia of World Political Systems NY Routledge 2016 Vol 1 957 p ISBN 9781317471561 Armenians Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East Jamie Stokes NY Facts on File 2009 P 52 66 880 p ISBN 9781438126760 Vol I A I Encyclopaedic Ethnography of Middle East and Central Asia R Khanam New Delhi Global Vision Publishing House 2005 318 p ISBN 8182200628 ISBN 9788182200623 James Minahan Vol IV S Z Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations Ethnic and National Groups Around the World Westport Conn Greenwood Press 2002 2241 p ISBN 9780313316173 Encyclopedia of the Developing World Thomas M Leonard Taylor amp Francis 2006 Vol 1 1759 p ISBN 9780415976626 August Pauly Georg Wissowa Wilhelm Kroll Kurt Witte Karl Mittelhaus Konrat Ziegler Band I Halbbande 1 2 Aal Apollokrates Paulys Realencyclopadie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft Stuttgart J B Metzler 1894 P 1303 Albaniya Enciklopedicheskij slovar Brokgauza i Efrona v 86 t 82 t i 4 dop SPb 1890 1907 SsylkiVostochnaya Armeniya Armeniya vo vtoroj polovine XVII XVIII vv Vnutrennyaya istoriya Armenii Arhivnaya kopiya ot 5 fevralya 2008 na Wayback Machine Osvobozhdenie Vostochnoj Armenii ot hanskogo iga

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